MORPHOLOGY – the branch of linguistics dealing with the internal structure and formations of words
Units called WORDS are composed of units called MORPHEMES.
MORPHEME – the smallest individually meaningful element in the utterances of a language
A WORD may be composed of several morphemes -> such a complex form is a reflection of linear order (morphemes are put together or added to another complex form)
MEAN | ING | FUL
root affixes
free morpheme – can function bound morphemes - never
as an independent word occur in isolation
Some words are morphologically SIMPLEX -> MONOMORPHEMIC (consisting of one morpheme) (mean, the, element)
EMPTY MORPHEMES – units of form without corresponding meaning (malin-a) – they do not mean anything on their own
PAR-O-WÓZ DW-U-PIĘTROWY
connective vowels (examples of empty morphemes)
*TWO CASES IN WHICH THE MEANING-BASED DEFINITION OF THE MORPHEME FAILS
1.
CRAN | BERRY MAL | INA
| meaningful | meaningful
| unit? | unit?
BLUE | BERRY JARZĘB | INA However, the residual elementsBLACK | BERRY ŻURAW | INA ‘cran-‘ and ‘mal-‘ do not occur independently
2.
ZERO MORPHEME – units of meaning without form, (to) cook – (a) cook
WORD-FORMS – a combination of phonetic or orthographic units, potentially constituting a fragment of a larger utterance
LEXEME – a dictionary item/an abstract notion; a lexeme may have several contextual realizations in terms of a particular word forms -> one of such forms is the CITATION-FORM
CITATION FORM – the form of a lexeme that refers to the given lexeme in dictionaries (np. w słownikach języka polskiego rzeczowniki występują w mianowniku i l.poj.; przymiotniki w mianowniku , l.poj. i r. męskim)
MATKA KUPIŁA DZIECKU NOWE BUTY.
|
5 word-forms representing the following lexemes
MATK-N KUPI-V DZIECK-N NOW-A BUT-N.
respective citation forms
MATKA KUPIĆ DZIECKO NOWY BUT
MORPH – a textual, context-sensitive realization of a morpheme
ALLOMORPHS – distinct morphs that may represent a morpheme (as an abstract); different realization of the same morpheme.
ALTERNATIONS IN MORPHOLOGY
1. BUT - [but] buty distribution of allomorphs is PHONOLOGICALLY CONDITIONED
- [buć] bucik
2. KOŃ – KONIE [-e] distribution of endings depends on gender of nouns -> such alternations are
NOC - NOCE [-e] MORPHOLOGICALLY (GRAMMATICALLY) CONDITIONED
OKNO – OKNA [-a]
SERCE – SERCA [-a]
PAN – PANOWIE [-ov’je]
3. DZIECKO [dzieck] DZIECI [dzieć] LEXICALLY CONDITIONED alternation
different root morphemes
RULE OF ALLOMORPHY – apply to a morpheme of other than phonologically designated set of morphemes, in the immediate environment of a designated morpheme or set of morphemes
MORPHOLOGY
Is divided into 2 subcomponents
INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY
Production of word-forms corresponding to a given Methods of forming new lexemes from lexeme, marking morpho-syntactic categories like: the already existing ones
- number - gender - tense - mood
- person - aspect - voice
- inflection never changes part of speech
- in English inflection is restricted to suffixation.
*some processes (adverb-formation) are between inflection and derivation.
AFFIXES (formatives) may be divided into inflectional and derivational.
STEM – the part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed
PŁACZ | ĄC | EGO
verbal stem inflectional morphemes (affixes)
BASE – a lexeme/morpheme from which another complex lexeme is formed
Word-forms which represent a given lexeme are organized into PARADIGMS -> closed set of forms of which only one may fill a particular syntactic slot
Nom. KOT – o
Instr. KOT – EM <- information about case, number and gender is enclosed in this formative ‘-EM’
‘-EM’ is a CUMULATIVE EXPONENT of 3 different inflectional categories:
Case, number and gender
INFLECTIONAL SYNCRETISM – some endings in noun declension (in Polish) are used more than once to mark distinct inflections -> neutralization of certain inflectional oppositions within the paradigm as well as in syntactic context
CREATIVITY – one is capable of producing virtually unlimited number of (derived) words; the native speaker’s ability to extend the language system in a motivated, but unpredictable (non-rule-governed) way
PRODUCTIVITY – one of the defining features of human language; allows the native speaker to produce an infinitely large number of sentences, many (or most) of which have never been produced before
PROCESS OF WORD-COINING – English adjectives: contractile, erectile, flexile
Unique suffixes: laughter, hatred, bishopric, rękaw
REGULARITY – there are regular rules for making up new words
- actual words
- possible but non-existent words
- impossible and non-existent words
- possible sentences (in syntax)
- impossible sentences (in syntax)
TRANSFORMATIONALIST APPROACH – morphology was not a separate component of the grammar but rather formed an integral part of syntax; derivation of complex words by means of transformation
LEXICALIST APPROACH – derivational morphology (as a separate component of the grammar) should be removed from syntax and made part of an extended lexicon (special word formation rules)
LEXICON – a list of lexical entries where information on each lexeme is provided
LEXICALIZATION – coining new lexemes as a result of applying a productive morphological rule to a base form; the element ‘-ure’ was mildly productive in deriving nouns but now new words are no longer derived by this element (all nouns ending with ‘-ure’ have to be listed in the lexicon -> whole derivational pattern has undergone lexicalization)
SEMANTIC LEXICALIZATION – kind of lexicalization where a derived lexeme has developed an unpredictable meaning
BLOCKING – the nonoccurrence of one form one to the simple existence of another -> the presence in the lexicon of the abstract noun ‘glory’ blocks the derivation of ‘gloriosity’ from the adjective “glorious’(it does not affect the highly productive nominalizer ‘-ness’ – ‘gloriousness’)
SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURES – connected with intonation, pitch, laudness. Sometimes it can change the meaning.
SUPRAFIXATION – insult /’insalt; in’salt/
NON-AFFIXATION PROCESSES
- CONVERSION without affix or zero affix (to attack <v>; attack <n>)
- BLENDING we take part of one and part of another word (television – eurovision, wardrobe – floordrobe)
- ACRONYMISATION NASA, AIDS, laser
- CLIPPING
- EPONYMS A word or name derived from the name of a person (Braille, Morse, atlas)
- TRUNCATION (editor – to edit)
PROBLEMS WITH THE MORPHEME
1. conversion (to father – a father)
2. truncation (David – Dave)
3. extended exponence
4. desegmentation (confer, refer, prefer; keep-kept)
DERIVED NOUNS
I Deverbal nouns
Nomina Actionis
function: abstract deverbal action nouns
meaning: act(ion)/process of V-ing
gerundive: -ing; totally productive, no blocking (even rivals)
derived nominals:
-conversion: (drive, go, ride, scan, walk; contrast, transport, insult; attack, supply)
-ation [-tion, -ion, -ution, -ition];
- ation: -ize (neutralize-neutralization, verbalize-verbalization),
-ate (truncation of ‘te’-> celebrate-celebration, imitate-imitation);
-ify, -ply -> -ication (verify-verification, simplification; apply-application, implication)
-tion: z noncoronals (b) -scribe, -ceive, - duce, -sume
-ion: z coronals (l,n,t,d) (rebel-rebellion, prevent-prevention, decide-decision); czasem -sion/-cion
-ment:
words beginning with en-, em-, be- (embarassment; enlargement, endorsement; beseechment, bedazzlement) (but betrayal);
where -ation can’t be cos of phonological rules -[sz, dż], syllabic sonorant (l, n)
(abolishment; encouragement, management; unravelment, enlighentment, improsonment)
-al: bisyllabic, ONLY final-stress verbs (arrival, denial, proposal, refusal); exception: burial; one monosyllabic verb ending in –al: try-trial
-ance: -fer, -side (prefer, refer, residence)
-age: monosyllabic bases (carriage, stoppage, storage)
-ure: (departure, failure, exposure)
-y: (delivery, discovery, flattery, robbery)
haplology – omission of 1 or 2 syllables that sound the same (adulterer-adultery, sorcerer-sorcery)
Residual: -t (flight), -th (depth) -ice (service), -ter (laughter), -er (merger); semi-suppletion
(choose-choice); consonant alternation (relief,descent); suppletion (despise-contempt, lend-loan)
How to form deverbal nouns?
- nomina actionis
- subject nominalization
- object nominalization
Subject nominalizations:
often polysemous words (printer, conductor, protector)
Nomina Agentis:
function: suffix forms agentive nouns
meaning: sb who V-es sth
-er: native monosylabic; usually transitive; derived v. –ize; (baker)
-or: Latinate only (poza sailor) (actor, inspector); -ate (imitator, creator, translator);
allomorphic extensions (comment-commentator, compete-competitor);
-ant: mostly Latinate; -ate (truncation-> occupy-occupant; extension-> apply-applicant)
-ee: v. rare (usually Patientive); (escapee, standee);
cos of blocking in: (adatpee-adapter, waitee-waiter, mergee-merger)
-conversion: usually colloquial speech; (to coach-a coach, to judge-a judge; cook; spy)
Residual: -al, -ar, -ist, -ian; denominal -ism-> -ist; lexicon
Constrains: ...
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