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GERMANY (DEUTSCHLAND) AND HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE (HEILIGES RÖMISCHES REICH)

The kingdom of the East Franks (eventually identified as an Alamannian, Teutonic, or German

monarchy) formed at the Treaty of Verdun and its division of the Frankish Empire in 843. On the extinction of

the Carolingian house in 911, the throne passed by election to the houses of the Conradines of Franconia and

the Liudolfings of Saxony. In 962 king Otto I was crowned emperor by the pope, and the German kingdom

entered a personal union with the Italian kingdom into what eventually came to be known as the Holy Roman

Empire. The kingdom of Burgundy (Arelate) was added to this personal union in 1032. In legal terms the

arrangement was to last until the formal dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, although by then

imperial rule had all but disappeared from any part of Burgundy and Italy and the feudal principalities of

Germany had become practically autonomous. Emperor Napoléon I of France established the Confederation of

the Rhine (1806–1813) to dominate most of the German states after the last emperor Franz II had abdicated

and contented himself with his Austrian and central European possessions. The Confederation of the Rhine was

succeeded by the German Confederation (1815–1866), set up by the Congress of Berlin, and generally under

the presidency of the Austrian emperor. At the end of this period Austria’s dominant position was terminated

by Prussia, and the Austrian possessions were definitively separated from the German states. After dominating

the North German Confederation (1867–1871), Prussia became the cornerstone of a single, albeit federal state

in 1871, when most of the sovereign states that had formed out of the Holy Roman Empire joined together in

the German Empire. By far the strongest and largest of its component states was the kingdom of Prussia, whose

kings served as emperors of Germany until the deposition of all German monarchs at the end of World War I in

1918, when Germany became a republic.

The royal and imperial succession in the Holy Roman Empire was perceived as at least partly subject to

election (corresponding to both Roman and Frankish notions of charismatic monarchy). Even when a

designated and unchallenged successor was available, imperial status had to be conferred by the pope, although

the second and third emperors were actually first appointed by their respective fathers. Therefore, until crowned

by the pope, a monarch remained only king of the Franks or, in German medieval practice, “king of the

Romans.” The monarchs were simultaneously kings of Italy (or of the Lombards) and, since 1032 of Burgundy

(or of Arles). The imperial title, though theoretically elective, remained firmly attached to the German

monarchy, although several German kings failed to secure an imperial coronation (most notably in the period

1250–1308). Starting with the Investiture Controversy between emperor Heinrich IV (1056–1105) and Pope

Gregorius VII, the de facto hereditary succession was undermined, and the state evolved into a truly elective

monarchy in spite of the efforts of the Hohenstaufen (1138–1254). This exacerbated the preexisting problems

posed by the lack of centralization, and in the long term fatally weakened the state. The right to elect an

emperor became vested in a limited number of secular and ecclesiastic princes, an arrangement crystallized in the

Golden Bull of emperor Karl IV (1346–1378) from 1356. Elective kings and emperors had to rely on their

personal possessions and revenues, and enjoyed the single practical advantage of disposing of fiefs that had

become vacant to the advantage of their own families. During the reign of Ludwig V (IV as emperor, 1314–

1347) it was decided that the elected king of Germany may use the imperial title even if the pope refused to

crown him emperor. This decision was put into practice in 1508, when Maximilian I (1493–1519) assumed the

imperial title at Trent and decreed that a monarch was emperor from the time of his election. The Habsburg

dynasty monopolized the throne from 1438, and from 1486 to 1765 the title “king of the Romans” was used for

junior co-rulers associated with their fathers. The Protestant Reformation and the Treaty of Augsburg (1555)

further eroded the monarch’s authority over the German principalities, as it provided local rulers with the

freedom of choosing between Catholicism and Lutheranism as the religion of their subjects. The last vestiges of

actual imperial power as such were swept away by the Thirty Years War and the Treaty of Westphalia (1648).

Franz II took the title emperor of Austria in 1804, and in 1806 abdicated as Holy Roman emperor and king of

its constituent monarchies. A succession of confederacies under mostly Austrian presidency was followed by the

Prussian-dominated German Empire in 1871. This strong but federated entity survived until 1918.

The kings of the East Franks were designated as rex Francorum , but by the 11 th century they were

called Romanorum rex until crowned emperor by the pope. The neo-Roman emperors were called Imperator and

Augustus in Latin and Kaiser in German. The list below includes East Frankish and German monarchs from the

accession of the Carolingian Dynasty in 751 beyond the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire till 1918. Also

included are the rulers of secular states that acquired the status of elector (of the emperor of the Holy Roman

Empire0 by 1806), or sovereignty as members of the German Confederation and of the German Empire, or had

been one of the original “tribal” duchies of the East Frankish kingdom (Bavaria, Franconia, Lorraine, Saxony,

Swabia). The Austrian Empire and its constituent territories, the grand duchies of Luxembourg and Limburg

(now in Belgium and the Netherlands) and the principality of Liechtenstein are listed separately.

German kings (and emperors of the Holy Roman Empire 1 )

Carolingian House

751–768 Pippin, the Short … son of Karl Martel, maior domus of the Franks

768–814 Karl I, the Great (Charlemagne) 2 … son of Pippin; Italy 774–781; emperor 800

& 768–771 Karlmann I … son of Pippin

Karl, the Younger … son of Karl I; associated 800–811

814–833 Ludwig I, the Pious … son of Karl I; Italy 818–820; emperor 813; deposed

833–834 Lothar I … son of Ludwig I; emperor 817; deposed

834–840 Ludwig I, the Pious … restored

840–843 Lothar I … restored; deposed, died 855

843–876 Ludwig II, the German … son of Ludwig I; associated in Bavaria 817

Karl II, the Bald … son of Ludwig I; associated in Swabia 829–833; emperor 875–877

876–880 Karlmann II … son of Ludwig II; in Bavaria; Italy 877–879

& 876–882 Ludwig III … son of Ludwig II; in Saxony; also Bavaria 880–882

& 876–887 Karl III, the Fat … son of Ludwig II; in Swabia; Italy 879–887; Saxony and Bavaria 882–887;

France 884–887; emperor 881; deposed, died 888

887–899 Arnulf, of Carinthia … bastard son of Karlmann II; Italy 896; emperor 896

899–911 Ludwig IV, the Child … son of Arnulf

Conradine House of Franconia

911–918 Konrad I … son of count Konrad I of Franconia by Glismut, bastard daughter of Arnulf

Luidolfing House of Saxony

919–936 Heinrich I, the Fowler … son of duke Otto I of Saxony

936–973 Otto I, the Great … son of Heinrich I; Italy 963–973; emperor 962

973–983 Otto II, the Red … son of Otto I; associated 961; also Italy; emperor 967

983–1002 Otto III … son of Otto II; associated 983; also Italy; emperor 996

1002–1024 Heinrich II, the Holy 3 … son of duke Heinrich II of Bavaria, son of Heinrich I, son of

Heinrich I; also Italy; emperor 1014

Salian House of Franconia

1024–1039 Konrad II … son of count Heinrich of Speyer, son of duke Otto I of Carinthia, son of duke

Konrad I of Lorraine by Liutgard, daughter of Otto I; also Italy; Burgundy 1032–1039; 4

emperor 1027

1039–1056 Heinrich III, the Black … son of Konrad II; associated 1028; emperor 1046

1056–1105 Heinrich IV … son of Heinrich III; associated 1053; emperor 1083; deposed, died 1106

• Rudolf of Swabia … son of count Kuno of Rheinfelden; rival 1077–1080

• Hermann of Salm … son of count Giselbert of Luxembourg; rival 1081–1088 5

Konrad … son of Heinrich IV; associated 1087–1093; deposed; rival 1093–1101

1105–1125 Heinrich V … son of Heinrich IV; associated 1099; emperor 1111

House of Supplinburg

1125–1137 Lothar II … posthumous son of count Gebhard of Supplinburg; emperor 1133

Hohenstaufen House of Swabia

1138–1152 Konrad III … son of duke Friedrich I of Swabia by Agnes, daughter of Heinrich IV;

previously rival 1127–1135

Heinrich … son of Konrad III; associated 1147–1150

1152–1190 Friedrich I, Barbarossa … son of duke Friedrich II of Swabia, brother of Konrad III;

emperor 1155

1190–1197 Heinrich VI … son of Friedrich I; associated 1169; emperor 1191; Sicily 1194–1197

1 Emperors 800–840, 881–887, 896–899, after 962 whenever crowned by a pope, after 1508 upon election.

2 Canonized as saint 1165.

3 Canonized as saint 1146.

4 From this point on all kings of Germany were also simultaneously kings of Italy and Burgundy.

5 Egbert of Meissen, son of margrave Egbert I of Meissen, was possibly chosen as a rival king in 1089–1090.

1197–1198 Friedrich II … son of Heinrich VI; associated 1196; replaced; Sicily 1197–1250

1198–1208 Philipp, of Swabia … son of Friedrich I

Welf House of Brunswick

1208–1215 Otto IV … son of duke Heinrich III of Saxony, son of duke Heinrich II by Gertrud,

daughter of Lothar II; rival since 1198; deposed, rival 1215–1218; emperor 1209

Hohenstaufen House of Swabia

1215–1250 Friedrich II … restored; rival since 1211; emperor 1220; Jerusalem 1225–1228

Heinrich … son of Friedrich II; associated 1220–1235; deposed, died 1242

• Heinrich Raspe … son of landgrave Hermann I of Thuringia; rival king 1246–1247

1250–1254 Konrad IV … son of Friedrich II; associated 1237; also Sicily; Jerusalem 1228–1254

House of Holland

1254–1256 Wilhelm … son of count Floris IV of Holland; rival since 1247

House of Anjou (England)

1257–1272 Richard of Cornwall … son of king John of England

• Alfons … son of king Fernando III of Castile by Elisabeth, daughter of Philipp; rival 6

1257–1275; resigned; Castile 1252–1284

House of Habsburg

1273–1291 Rudolf I … son of count Albrecht IV of Habsburg 7

House of Nassau

1292–1298 Adolf … son of count Walram II of Nassau; deposed, died 1298

House of Habsburg (Austria)

1298–1308 Albrecht I … son of Rudolf I

House of Luxemburg

1308–1313 Heinrich VII … son of count Henri VI of Luxembourg; emperor 1312

House of Wittelsbach (Bavaria)

1314–1347 Ludwig V, the Bavarian … son of duke Ludwig II of Upper Bavaria by Mathilde, daughter

of Rudolf I; emperor 1328

• Friedrich, the Handsome … son of Albrecht I; rival 1314–1322; associated 1325–1330

House of Luxemburg (Bohemia)

1347–1378 Karl IV 8 … son of king Jan of Bohemia, son of Heinrich VII; rival since 1346; emperor 1355

• Günther … son of count Heinrich VII of Schwarzburg; rival 1349; abdicated, died 1349

1378–1400 Wenzel … son of Karl IV; associated 1376; deposed, died 141 9 9

House of the Wittelsbach (Palatinate)

1400–1410 Ruprecht, Klem … son of elector Ruprecht II of the Palatinate, son of count palatine Adolf,

son of count palatine Rudolf I, brother of Ludwig V

House of Luxemburg (Bohemia)

1410–1437 Sigismund … son of Karl IV; Hungary 1387–1437; Bohemia 1419–1437; emperor 1433

1410–1411 Jobst … son of margrave Jan Jindřich of Moravia, brother of Karl IV; rival 1410–1411

House of Habsburg (Austria)

1438–1439 Albrecht II … son of duke Albrecht IV of Austria, son of duke Albrecht III, son of duke

Albrecht II, son of Albrecht I; husband of Elisabeth, daughter of Sigismund; Bohemia

and Hungary 1438–1439

1440–1493 Friedrich III … son of duke Ernst of Styria, son of duke Leopold III, son of duke Albrecht II

of Austria, son of Albrecht I; emperor 1452

1493–1519 Maximilian I … son of Friedrich III; emperor 150 8 10

6 Alfons received a 4:3 majority of the electoral votes, so he should be considered the legitimate monarch.

7 Konrad of Teck, son of duke Adalbert II of Teck, was possibly chosen king after the death in Rudolf I in 1292,

but was murdered within days.

8 Originally named Wenzel (Václav).

9 Friedrich of Brunswick-Lüneburg, son of duke Magnus II of Brunswick-Lüneburg, was possibly chosen rival

king in 1400, but was murdered shortly thereafter.

10 From this point on, coronation by the pope was no longer deemed necessary to claim imperial status.

1519–1556 Karl V … son of king Felipe I of Castile, son of Maximilian I; Aragón, Castile, Sicily 1516–1556;

Naples 1516–1554; abdicated, died 155 8 11

1556–1564 Ferdinand I … brother of Karl V; associated 1531; Bohemia and Hungary 1526–1564

1564–1576 Maximilian II … son of Ferdinand I; associated 1562; also Bohemia and Hungary

1576–1612 Rudolf II … son of Maximilian II; associated 1575; also Bohemia and Hungary

1612–1619 Matthias … son of Maximilian II; also Bohemia and Hungary

1619–1637 Ferdinand II … son of duke Karl of Styria, son of Ferdinand I; also Bohemia and Hungary

1637–1657 Ferdinand III … son of Ferdinand II; associated 1636; also Bohemia and Hungary

Ferdinand IV … son of Ferdinand III; associated 1653–1654

1658–1705 Leopold I … son of Ferdinand III; also Bohemia and Hungary

1705–1711 Joseph I … son of Leopold I; associated 1690; also Bohemia and Hungary

1711–1740 Karl VI … son of Leopold I; also Bohemia and Hungary; Naples 1713–1734; Sardinia

1713–1720; Sicily 1720–1734

1740–1742 (interregnum)

House of Wittelsbach (Bavaria)

1742–1745 Karl VII … son of elector Maximilian II of Bavaria, son of elector Ferdinand Maria, son of

elector Maximilian I, son of duke Wilhelm V, son of duke Albrecht V, son of duke

Wilhelm IV, son of duke Albrecht IV, son of duke Albrecht III, son of duke Ernst, son

of duke Johann II, son of duke Stephan II, son of Ludwig V; husband of Maria Amalie,

daughter of Joseph I

House of Habsburg-Lorraine (Austria)

1745–1765 Franz I … husband of Maria Theresia, daughter of Karl VI; son of duke Léopold of Lorraine

1765–1790 Joseph II … son of Franz I; associated 1764; Bohemia and Hungary 1780–1790

1790–1792 Leopold II … son of Franz I; also Bohemia and Hungary

1792–1806 Franz II … son of Leopold I; abdicated; Bohemia and Hungary 1792–1834; Austria 1804–1835

(dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire 1806)

GERMAN CONFEDERATIONS

Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine (Rheinbund)

1806–1814 Napoléon (I of France) … son of Carlo Buonaparte; emperor of the French; died 1821

(dissolution of the Confederation of the Rhine 1814)

Presidents of the German Confederation (Deutscher Bund)

1815–1835 Franz (I of Austria) … former emperor of the Holy Roman Empire 1792–1806

1835–1848 Ferdinand (I of Austria) … son of Franz; abdicated, died 1875

1849–1850 Friedrich Wilhelm (IV of Prussia) … son of king Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia; died 1861

1850–1866 Franz Joseph (I of Austria) … son of Franz Karl, son of Franz; died 1916

(dissolution of the German Confederation 1866)

President of the North German Confederation

1867–1871 Wilhelm (I of Prussia) … brother of Friedrich Wilhelm; emperor of Germany 1871–1888

(conversion into German Empire 1871)

GERMAN EMPIRE (DEUTSCHES REICH)

German emperors

House of Hohenzollern (Prussia)

1871–1888 Wilhelm I … president of the North German Confederation 1867; Prussia 1861–1888

1888 Friedrich … son of Wilhelm I; also Prussia (Friedrich III)

1888–1918 Wilhelm II … son of Friedrich; also Prussia; deposed, died 1941

(republic 1918)

11 Karl V was the last Holy Roman emperor to be crowned by the pope, in 1530.

ANHALT

The county of Anhalt belonged to the Ascanian House, which came to rule ducal Saxony from 1180. On the

death of duke Bernhard of Saxony in 1212, his younger son Heinrich I inherited Anhalt with the title of prince

(fürst) . On the extinction of the Ascanian line of Saxe-Lauenburg in 1689, the princes of Anhalt claimed the

title of duke of Saxony. The dynasty divided itself into several branches, which attained the ducal title in 1806–

1807. With the extinction of the lines of Anhalt-Köthen in 1847 and of Anhalt-Bernburg in 1863, the line of

Anhalt-Dessau reunited the entire duchy and joined the German Empire in 1871.

Counts and princes of Anhalt

Ascanian House of Anhalt

1212–1252 Heinrich I … son of duke Bernhard III of Saxony; prince of Anhalt 1218

(division into lines of Ascherleben, Bernburg, and Köthen 1252)

Princes of Anhalt in Ascherleben

1252–1266 Heinrich II … son of prince Heinrich I of Anhalt

1266–1304 Otto I, the Fat … son of Heinrich II

& 1266–1307 Heinrich III … son of Heinrich II; archbishop of Magdeburg 1305

1304–1315 Otto II … son of Otto I

(to Anhalt-Bernburg and the Bishopric of Halberstadt 1315; to Brandenburg 1648)

Princes and dukes of Anhalt in Bernburg

1252–1287 Bernhard I … son of prince Heinrich I of Anhalt

1287–1324 Bernhard II … son of Bernhard I

1324–1348 Bernhard III … son of Bernhard II

1348–1354 Bernhard IV … son of Bernhard III

& 1348–1377 Heinrich IV … son of Bernhard III

& 1348–1404 Otto III … son of Bernhard III

1377–1410 Bernhard V … son of Heinrich IV

& 1377–1405 Rudolf II … son of Heinrich IV; bishop of Halberstadt 1400

1404–1416 Otto IV … son of Otto III

& 1404–1468 Bernhard VI … son of Otto III

1468–1497 Hedwig … widow of Bernhard VI; daughter of duke Jan I of Silesia-Sagan

1497–1603 (to Anhalt-Zerbst)

1603–1630 Christian I … son of prince Joachim Ernst of Anhalt-Zerbst; in Zerbst 1586–1603

1630–1656 Christian II … son of Christian I

1656–1718 Viktor Amadeus … son of Christian II

1718–1721 Karl Friedrich … son of Viktor Amadeus

1721–1765 Viktor Friedrich … son of Karl Friedrich

1765–1796 Friedrich Albrecht … son of Viktor Friedrich

1796–1834 Alexius Friedrich Christian … son of Friedrich Albrecht; duke of Anhalt-Bernburg 1806

1834–1863 Alexander Karl … son of Alexius Friedrich Christian

(to Anhalt-Dessau 1863)

Princes of Anhalt in Harzgerode

1635–1670 Friedrich … son of prince Christian I of Anhalt-Bernburg

1670–1709 Wilhelm Ludwig … son of Friedrich

(to Anhalt-Bernburg 1709)

Princes of Anhalt in Hoym

1718–1727 Lebrecht … son of prince Viktor Amadeus of Anhalt-Bernburg

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