Początki pisma.doc

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Czynniki, które decydowały o powstaniu takiej, a nie innej budowy
i ewolucji pisma

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     

Wewnętrzne:

·         potrzeba pisma wynikająca z postulatu oderwania (uniezależnienia) przekazu językowego od konsytuacji miejsca i czasu towarzyszącej aktowi mowy, rozszerzenia jego zasięgu na inne, dalsze miejsca i czasy

·         środek służący do realizacji tej potrzeby – substytuowanie znaków akustycznych przez znaki wizualne (współcześnie utrwalanie językowych znaków akustycznych w postaci taśmy, płyty itp.)

·         język jest urządzeniem znakowym → piktogramy i ideogramy, potem fonogramy i litery

·         pod względem struktury systemu znaków może być:

o       jednoklasowy, czyli globalny, albo dwuklasowy, czyli dystynktywny
(I – nieekonomiczny i praktycznie ograniczony, II – ekonomiczny
i praktycznie uniwersalny),

o       nielinearny (wielowymiarowy względnie wielokierunkowy) lub linearny (następujący w czasie względnie przestrzeni) – znaki językowe są zawsze linearne;

·         struktura samego języka, która na ewolucje pisma (także lingwistyki) może wpływać pobudzająco lub hamująco

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     

Zewnętrzne:

·         czynniki natury historycznej:

o       nacisk tradycji hamującej ewolucję, a tym samym często dalsze doskonalenie pisma, oraz powodujący, ze jego ewolucja z reguły
nie nadąża za rozwojem języka,

o       przechodzenie danego systemu graficznego drogą zapożyczenia
lub przymusu z jednego języka do innego,

o       określony ustrój społeczny i psychika ludności;

·         czynniki natury praktycznej:

o       pismo jako technika transkrypcji → rozbieżności między pisownią
a językiem,

o       ekonomia – potrzeba oszczędności środków graficznych

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     

Główne linie ewolucyjne pisma

·         znaki pojęć i znaki dźwięków

·         znaki globalne i znaki dystynktywne

W wyniku tego otrzymujemy:

·         pismo jako system znaków globalnych, dotyczących treści psychicznych (traktowane globalnie) → piktogramy (obrazki rzeczywistości oznaczanej)

·         pismo jako system znaków dystynktywnych dotyczących treści psychicznych → ideogramy wyrazowe (zawsze linearne)

·         pismo jako system znaków globalnych, ale dotyczących formy dźwiękowej → fonogramy wyrazowe (linearne)

·         pismo jako system znaków dystynktywnych i dotyczących formy dźwiękowej → fonogramy sylabiczne (sylabogramy) albo fonogramy głoskowe (litery)

 

 

EGIPT

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      

·         początek pisma – IV tysiąclecie p.n.e.

·         do ok. poł. III tysiąclecia – piktogramy, potem – ideogramy (hieroglify)

·         w VII w. p.n.e. (tzw. Epoka Późna) – powstanie bardziej uproszczonej formy tego pisma (zw. przez Greków pismem ludowym, demotycznym)

·         od czasów Ptolemeuszów (304 r. p.n.e.) – wypierane przez alfabet grecki

·         w poł. VII w. – inwazja arabska → wyparcie języka egipskiego (koptyjskiego)
z życia codziennego Egiptu przez arabski i ograniczenie go do roli języka liturgicznego

·         znajomość hieroglifów wyszła z użycia w czasach rzymskich, a ich ponowne odczytanie było dziełem J.F. Champollion w XIX w.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      

MEZOPOTAMIA – CHALDEJA (BABILONIA) I ASYRIA,
CZYLI DAWNE KRAJE SUMER I AKAD

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      

·         pocz. – IV tysiąclecie p.n.e.

·         podbicie Chaldei przez Asyrię – w poł. II tys. – ale górowała nad nią kulturą
i cywilizacją → język sumerski wyszedł z codziennego użycia na rzecz asyryjskiego, ale utrzymał się nadal język martwy, język uczony najstarszych zabytków

o       pismo sumerskie zostało przejęte przez Asyryjczyków

§         na terenie starożytnej Mezopotamii:

-          bilingwizm akadysjko-sumerski (dwujęzyczność)

-          zainteresowania filologiczne

o       warunkowane

·         najstarsze zabytki sumerskie miały charakter piktograficzny, wcześniej jednak pojawiło się pismo ideograficzne w postaci klinów

·         język sumerski pochodzenia niejasnego, ale nie semickiego; był językiem,
w którym rola samogłosek była taka sama jak spółgłosek

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      

SYRIA – PALESTYNA – EGEA: FENICJANIE, HEBRAJCZYCY, KRETEŃCZYCY

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      

FEINICJANIE

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      

·         w mieście Ugarit znaleziono archiwa z ok. 1500 r. p.n.e. zapisane pismem klinowym na tabliczkach glinianych

·         w Byblos znaleziono liczne słupy kamienne i tabliczki pisane pismem hieroglificznym, sięgające pocz. II tys. p.n.e.

·         właściwe pismo fenickie – XI w. p.n.e.

·         alfabet fenicki

o       niewielka ilość znaków – 22 (tylko spółgłoski)

o       postęp w stosunku do hieroglifów egipskich i klinów mezopotamskich polegający na:

§         całkowitym wyeliminowaniu ideografii na rzecz fonografii à

-          usunięciu polifonii i homofonii na rzecz zasady, że ten sam znak oznacza ten sam dźwięk i na odwrót

-          usunięcie determinantów natury semantycznej i fonicznej

§         usunięciu znaków fonetycznych globalnych, złożonych z kilku sylab lub głosek (zasada: jeden znak oznacza jeden dźwięk
i na odwrót)

o       prawdopodobnie

·         język Aramejczyków w ciągu I tys. p.n.e. wyparł język fenicki, hebrajski
i asyryjski

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      

HEBRAJCZYCY

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      

·         początki – tradycja ustna

·         pierwsze teksty – IX w. p.n.e.

·         początkowo pismo w postaci fenickiej, która utrzymywała się w Samarii, Żydzi mieszkający w Judei przejęli w poł. I tys. pismo aramejskie (również pochodzenia fenickiego) – pismo to, jako tzw. kwadratowe pismo hebrajskie, posłużyło do pisania Biblii

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      

EGEA

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      

·         główny ośrodek kulturowy – Kreta, której zabytki archeologiczne sięgają
III tys. p.n.e., m.in. napisy hieroglificzne sięgające II-III tys. oraz teksty
tzw. linearne w dwojakiej postaci:

o       starszej (XVII-XIV w.) – tzw. pismo linearne A, dotąd nieodczytane

o       młodszej (XIV-XIII w.) – tzw. pismo linearne B, odczytane
i zinterpretowane przez M. Ventrisa i J. Chadwicka w 1953 r. jako pismo sylabiczne z tekstem greckim (przedkorynckim)

·         liczne napisy odnaleziono na Peloponezie i w Mykenach

·         tj. pismo archaiczne o budowie sylabicznej

o       88 znaków

o       dany znak oznaczał spółgłoskę + samogłoskę lub samą samogłoskę

o       źle pasowało do systemu fonetycznego greki

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      

 ...

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