Prolog Programming - A First Course - Paul Brna.pdf

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PrologProgramming
AFirstCourse
PaulBrna
March5,2001
Abstract
Thecourseforwhichthesenotesaredesignedisintendedforundergraduate
studentswhohavesomeprogrammingexperienceandmayevenhavewritten
afewprogramsinProlog.Theyarenotassumedtohavehadanyformal
courseineitherpropositionalorpredicatelogic.
Attheendofthecourse,thestudentsshouldhaveenoughfamiliaritywith
Prologtobeabletopursueanyundergraduatecoursewhichmakesuseof
Prolog.
Thisisaratherambitiousundertakingforacourseofonlytwelvelectures
sothelecturesaresupplementedwithexercisesandsmallpracticalprojects
whereverpossible.
ThePrologimplementationusedisSICStusPrologwhichiscloselymod-
elledonQuintusProlog(SICSistheSwedishInstituteofComputerScience).
Thereferencemanualshouldalsobeavailableforconsultation[SICStus,1988].
c ° PaulBrna1988
Contents
1Introduction 1
1.1DeclarativevsProceduralProgramming............ 1
1.2WhatKindofLogic?....................... 1
1.3AWarning............................ 2
1.4ARequest............................. 2
2KnowledgeRepresentation 3
2.1PropositionalCalculus...................... 3
2.2FirstOrderPredicateCalculus................. 4
2.3WeTurntoProlog....................... 5
2.4PrologConstants........................ 7
2.5GoalsandClauses........................ 8
2.6MultipleClauses......................... 8
2.7Rules................................ 9
2.8Semantics.............................10
2.9TheLogicalVariable.......................11
2.10RulesandConjunctions.....................12
2.11RulesandDisjunctions......................13
2.12BothDisjunctionsandConjunctions..............14
2.13WhatYouShouldBeAbleToDo................15
3Prolog’sSearchStrategy 16
3.1QueriesandDisjunctions ....................16
3.2ASimpleConjunction......................19
3.3ConjunctionsandDisjunctions.................21
3.4WhatYouShouldBeAbleToDo................23
4Unification,RecursionandLists 26
4.1Unification............................26
4.2Recursion.............................27
4.3Lists................................29
4.4WhatYouShouldBeAbleToDo................32
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5TheBoxModelofExecution 34
5.1TheBoxModel..........................34
5.2TheFlowofControl.......................35
5.3AnExampleusingtheByrdBoxModel ............36
5.4AnExampleusinganAND/ORProofTree..........38
5.5WhatYouShouldBeAbleToDo................38
6ProgrammingTechniquesandListProcessing 53
6.1The‘Reversibility’ofPrologPrograms............53
6.1.1EvaluationinProlog..................54
6.2CallingPatterns.........................55
6.3ListProcessing..........................56
6.3.1ProgramPatterns....................56
6.3.2ReconstructingLists...................60
6.4ProofTrees............................62
6.5WhatYouShouldBeAbleToDo................63
7ControlandNegation 66
7.1SomeUsefulPredicatesforControl...............66
7.2TheProblemofNegation....................67
7.2.1NegationasFailure....................68
7.2.2UsingNegationinCaseSelection............69
7.3SomeGeneralProgramSchemata................70
7.4WhatYouShouldBeAbleToDo................77
8ParsinginProlog 78
8.1SimpleEnglishSyntax......................78
8.2TheParseTree..........................79
8.3FirstAttemptatParsing....................80
8.4ASecondApproach.......................81
8.5PrologGrammarRules.....................82
8.6ToUsetheGrammarRules...................83
8.7HowtoExtractaParseTree..................83
8.8AddingArbitraryPrologGoals ................84
8.9WhatYouShouldBeAbleToDo................84
9ModifyingtheSearchSpace 86
9.1ASpecialControlPredicate...................86
9.1.1Commit..........................86
9.1.2MakeDeterminate....................89
9.1.3FailGoalNow......................90
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9.2ChangingtheProgram......................91
9.2.1DoNotDoIt!.......................92
9.2.2SometimesYouhaveTo!.................93
9.3WhatYouShouldBeAbleToDo................94
10PrologSyntax 97
10.1Constants.............................97
10.2Variables .............................98
10.3CompoundTerms.........................98
10.4(Compound)TermsasTrees...................99
10.5CompoundTermsandUnification...............99
10.6TheOccursCheck........................100
10.7ListsAreTermsToo.......................101
10.8HowToGlueTwoListsTogether................102
10.9RulesasTerms..........................104
10.10WhatYouShouldBeAbleToDo................105
11Operators 112
11.1TheThreeForms.........................112
11.1.1Infix............................112
11.1.2Prefix...........................113
11.1.3Postfix...........................113
11.2Precedence............................113
11.3AssociativityNotation......................116
11.3.1InfixOperators......................116
11.3.2ThePrefixCase.....................117
11.3.3PrefixOperators.....................117
11.3.4PostfixOperators.....................117
11.4HowtoFindOperatorDefinitions ...............117
11.5HowtoChangeOperatorDefinitions..............118
11.6AMoreComplexExample....................119
11.7WhatYouShouldBeAbleToDo................120
12AdvancedFeatures 122
12.1PowerfulFeatures.........................122
12.1.1PowerfulFeatures—Typing...............122
12.1.2PowerfulFeatures—SplittingUpClauses.......123
12.1.3PowerfulFeatures—ComparisonsofTerms......128
12.1.4PowerfulFeatures—FindingAllSolutions.......128
12.1.5PowerfulFeatures—FindOutaboutKnownTerms .130

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