Copleston History of Philosophy 04.pdf

A History of Philosophy by Frederick Copleston, S.J.

A HISTORY

VOLUME I: GREECE AND ROME

From the Pre-Socratics to Plotinus

VOLUME II: MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY

From Augustine to Duns Scotus

VOLUME III: LATE MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE PHILOSOPHY

Ockham, Francis Bacon, and the Beginning of the Modern World

VOLUME IV: MODERN PHILOSOPHY

From Descartes to Leibniz

VOLUME V: MODERN PHILOSOPHY

The British Philosophers from Hobbes to Hume

VOLUME VI: MODERN PHILOSOPHY

From the French Enlightenment to Kant

"VOLUME VII: MODERN PHILOSOPHY

From the Post-Kantian Idealists to Marx, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche

"VOLUME VIII: MODERN PHILOSOPHY

Empiricism, Idealism, and Pragmatism in Britain and America

"VOLUME IX: MODERN PHILOSOPHY

From the French Revolution to Sartre, Camus, and Levi-Strauss

"Available March 1994

PHILOSOPHY

A HISTORY

PHILOSOPHY

VOLUME IV

Modern Philosophy: From

Descartes to Leibniz

Frederick Copleston, S.J.

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CONTENTS

PREFACE

Prill

AN IMAGE BOOK

PUBLISHED BY DOUBLEDAY

a division of Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc.

1540 Broadway, New York, New York 10036

I. INTRODUCTION

Continuity and novelty: the early phase of modem philosophy in

its relation to mediaeval and Renaissance thought-Continental

rationalism: its nature, its relation to scepticism and to neo-

Stoicism, its development-British empiricism: its nature and its

development-The seventeenth century-The eighteenth cen-

tury-Political philosophy-The rise of the philosophy of

history-Immanuel Kant.

IMAGE, DOUBLEDAY, and the portrayal of a deer drinking from a stream are

trademarks of Double~ay, a division of Bantam Doubleday Dell

Publishing Group, Inc.

II. DESCARTES (I)

Life and works-Descartes' aim-His idea of method-The

theory of innate ideas-Methodic doubt.

First Image Books edition of Volume IV of The History ofPhilosophy published

1963 by special arrangement with The Newman Press and Burns & Oates, Ltd.

This Image edition published January 1994.

III. DESCARTES (2)

Cogito, "go sum-Thinking and the thinker-The criterion of

truth-The existence of God-The accusation of a vicious

circle-The explanation of error-The certainty of mathematics

-The ontolOgIcal argument for God's existence.

De Licentia Superioru.m Ordinis: J. D. Boyle, S.J., Praep. Provo Angliae

Nihil Obstat: J. L. Russell, S.J., Censor Deputatus

Imprimatur: Franciscus, Archiepiscopus Birmingamiensis Birmingamiae die

25 Julii 1957

IV. DESCARTES (3)

The existence of bodies-Substances and their principal attri-

butes-The relation between mind and body.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Copleston, Frederick Charles.

A history of philosophy.

Includes bibliographical references and indexes.

Contents: V. 1. Greece and Rome-[etc.]-

V. 4. From Descartes to Leibniz-v. 5. The British

philosophers from Hobbes to Hume-v. 6. From the

French Enlightenment to Kant.

1. Philosophy-History. I. Title.

B72.C62 1993

V. DESCARTES (4)

124

The qualities of bodies-Descartes and the dogma of transub-

stantiation-Space and place-Motion-Duration and time-

The origin of motion-The laws of motion-The divine activity

in the world-Living bodies.

VI. DESCARTES (5)

139

190

92-34997

Man's awareness of freedom-Freedom and God-Provisional

ethics and moral science-The passions and their control-The

nature of the good-Comments on Descartes' ethical ideas-

General remarks about Descartes.

ISBN 0-385-47041-X

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

VII. PASCAL •

153

Life and spirit of Pascal-The geometrical method, its scope and

limits-'The heart'-Pascal's method in apologetics-The

wretchedness and the greatness of man-The wager-argument-

Pascal as a philosopher.

VIII. CARTESIANISM: •

The spread of Cartesianism-Geullncx and the problem of

interaction.

174

vii

VIII

CONTENTS

Chapter

IX. MALEBRANCHE

Life and writings-The senses, the imagination, the understand-

ing; avoidance of error and attainment of truth-God as the

only true cause-Human liberty-The vision of eternal truths

in God-Empirical knowledge of the soul-Knowledge of other

minds and of the existence of bodies-God's existence and

attributcs-Malebranche in relation to Spinoza, Descartes and

Berkeley-The influence of Malebranche.

Page

180

Chapter

XVIII. LEIBNIZ (4)

The ontological argument-The argument to God's existence

from eternal truths-The argument from truths of fact-The

argument from the pre-established harmony-The problem of

evil-Progress and history.

ApPENDIX: A SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY

333

X. SPINOZA (I)

Life-Works-The geometrical method-The influence of other

philosophies on Spinoza's thought-Interpretations of Spinoza's

philosophy.

20 5

INDEX

347

XI. SPINOZA (2)

Substance and its attributes-Infinite modes-The production

of finite modes-Mind and body-The elimination of final

causality.

214

XII. SPINOZA (3)

Spinoza's levels or degrees of knowledge-Confused experience;

universal ideas; falsity-Scientific knowledge-Intuitive know-

ledge.

230

XIII. SPINOZA (4)

Spinoza's intention in his account of human emotions and con-

duct-The eonatus; pleasure and pain-The derived emotions-

Passive and active emotions-Servitude and freedom-The

intellectual love of God-The 'eternity' of the human mind-An

inconsistency in Spinoza's ethics.

XIV. SPINOZA (5)

Natural right-The foundation of political society-Sovereignty

and government-Relations between States-Freedom and

toleration-Spinoza's influence and different estimates of his

philosophy.

XV. LEIBNIZ (I)

Life-The De al't, combinatoria and the idea of harmony-

Writings-Different interpretations of Leibniz's thought.

XVI. LEIBNIZ (2)

The distinction between truths of reason and truths of fact-

Truths of reason or necessary propositions-Truths of fact or

contingent propositions-The principle of perfection-Substance

-The identity of indiscernibles-The law of continuity-The

'panlogism' of Leibniz.

273

XVII. LEIBNIZ (3)

Simple substances or monads-Entelechies and prime matter-

Extension-Body and corporeal substance-Space and time-

The pre-established harmony-Perception and appetite-Soul

and body-Innate ideas.

295

PREFACE

AT the end of Volume III of this History ofPhilosophy I expressed

the hope of covering the period from Descartes up to and including

Kant in the fourth volume. I meant, of course, that I hoped to

discuss the whole of this part of modem philosophy in one book.

This hope, however, has not been fulfilled. I have found myself

compelled to devote three books to the period in question. And

for the sake of convenience I have made each of these three books

a separate volume. Volume IV, Descartes to Leibniz, deals with

the great rationalist systems of philosophy on the Continent in the

pre-Kantian period. In Volume V, Hobbes to Hume, I discuss the

development of British philosophy from Hobbes up to and includ-

ing the Scottish philosophy of common sense. In Volume VI,

Wolff to Kant, I shall treat of the French Enlightenment and of

Rousseau, of the German Enlightenment, of the rise of the

philosophy of history from Vico to Herder, and finally of the system

of Immanuel Kant. The title, Wolff to Kant, is certainly not

ideal; but in view of the fact that in his pre-critical days Kant

stood in the Wolffian tradition there is at least something to be

said in its favour, whereas a title such as Voltaire to Kant would

be extremely odd.

As in former volumes, I have divided the matter according to

philosophers rather than by following out the development of

first one and then another philosophical problem. Furthermore,

I have treated some philosophers at considerable length. And

though I think that division of the matter according to philo-

sophers is the most convenient division for the readers whom I

have principally in mind, this method certainly has its dis-

advantages. Faced by a number of different thinkers and by more

or less detailed descriptions of their ideas, the reader may fail to

grasp the general picture. Further, though I think that the old

division into continental rationalism and British empiricism is

justified, provided that a number of qualifications are added, a

rigid adherence to this scheme is apt to give the impression that

continental philosophy and British philosophy in the seventeenth

and eighteenth centuries moved on two sets of parallel straight

lines, each developing in entire independence of the other. And

this is an erroneous impression. Descartes exercised a modest

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