Teaching and Learning English - theories and practices.pdf

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TEACHING &
LEARNING ENGLISH
(Theories and Practices)
MUHAMMAD SUKRIANTO
LOVI TRIONO
ENGLISH EDUCATION
POST GRADUATE PROGRAM
INDONESIA UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION
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Content
Content
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A Pragmatic Analysis of the Conversational Implicatures
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Speaking Activities Implemented by Teachers in Classroom
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Teaching English to Children
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Pembelajaran dengan Menggunakan Media Komputer
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Applying Contextual Instruction to involve Students with The Natural
Way of Learning English
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Students Age which EFL is Introduced in School and
Educational Outcome
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Which Students Join Whom?
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You are Intellectuall? Write!
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A Critical Review of “Pokoknya Sunda”
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English Sentences
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“Radio” The Innovation of Technology in Education
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Ten Good Game for Recycling Vocabulary
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The Effect of Explicit Metapragmatic Instruction on Speech Act
Awareness of Advanced EFL Students
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Students’ Vocabulary Learning Strategies
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Encouraging Questioning In English Reading Comprehension
For The Second Year Students Of Man Model Manado
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Analyzing Total Educational Program
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The Unique of Children
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Teachers’ Strategies in Teaching Reading Comprehension
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Sequence and Comment on The Story for Young Learners
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First Sound in Child Language
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A Pragmatic Analysis of The Conversational Implicatures in Today’s
Dialogue on Metro TV “Thoughts on The Reshuffle”
Based on Grice’s Cooperative Principle and Its Maxims
Muhammad Sukrianto
Indonesia University of Education
ABSTRACT
It is widely argued that Grice’s theory of implicature has wide and useful
applications. Based on Grice’s Cooperative Principle and its maxims, this
study attempts to analyze pragmatically the conversational implicatures in
a Today’s Dialogue program on Metro TV “Thoughts on The Reshuffle”
The result shows that in the conversation, the four maxims are
flouted. The maxims of relevance are frequently flouted (80, 95%)
the highest score. The second frequently flouted are the maxim of
quantity (76, 19%), and then followed by maxim of manner (47,
61%) and maxim of quality (6, 52%). In this analysis, we argue that the
reasoning rigor of the CP and its maxims is worth respecting by linguists in
general and pragmaticists in particular.
Keywords: Cooperative Principle and its maxims, conversational implicatures,
pragmatic analysis
1. Introduction
It has been recognized that generally when we are involved in a conversation,
we are cooperating with each other. In other words, when a listener hears an expression,
he or she first has to assume that the speaker is being cooperative and intend to
communicate something. However, in many occasion in conversation, speaker intend to
communicate more than is said. It is an additional meaning or that something more than
what the words means called an implicature (Yule, 1996).
Conversational implicatures have become one of the principal subjects of
pragmatics. According to Levinson (1983:97), the notion of conversational implicature
is one of the single most important ideas in pragmatics. An implicature is something
meant, implied, or suggested distinct from what is said. Implicatures can be part of
sentence meaning or dependent on conversational context, and can be conventional or
unconventional. Grice, who coined the term “implicature,” and classified the
phenomenon, developed an influential theory to explain and predict conversational
implicatures, and describe how they are understood. The “Cooperative Principle” and
associated “Maxims” play a central role. Many authors have focused on principles of
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politeness and communicative efficiency. Questions have been raised as to how well
these principle-based theories account for the intentionality of speaker implicature and
conventionality of sentence implicature.
This study does not attempt to review either all the relevant theory or all of
what is known about implicature in the world’s languages. Rather, an attempt is made to
pinpoint some of the most tantalizing theoretical and descriptive problems, to sketch the
way in attempts to analyze pragmatically the conversational implicatures of a
conversational transcript in a Today’s Dialogue program on Metro TV “Thoughts on The
Reshuffle,” based on Grice’s Cooperative Principle and its maxims
Conversation transcript is a written text as the realizations of utterance by the
participant in a conversation. A transcript has detail and complete utterances. However,
the meaning of utterance in written text can also be known from its situation context
within the sequence of the actions.
2. Theoretical Foundation
In addition to identifying and classifying the phenomenon of implicature, Grice
developed a theory designed to explain and predict conversational implicatures. He also
sought to describe how such implicatures are understood. Grice postulated a general
“Cooperative Principles” and four “maxims” specifying how to be cooperative It is
common knowledge, he asserted, that people generally follow these rules for efficient
communication.
Grice’s theory of implicature is an attempt to explain how a hearer gets what is
meant, from the level of expressed meaning to the level of implied meaning from what
is said. In order to explain the mechanisms by which people interpret conversational
implicature (Levinson 1983, Yule 1996).
Grice (1967) proposed the Cooperative Principle (CP) and four conversational
maxims. The CP runs as follows: make your contribution to what is required at the stage
at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk in which you are
engaged; to put it in another way, we assume that in a conversation, all participants,
regardless of their cultural background, will cooperate with each other when making
their contributions. Grice then broke this principle down into four maxims, which go
towards making a speaker’s contribution to the conversation “cooperative”.
(1) Quality: Do not say what you believe to be false.
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Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
(2) Quantity: Make your contribution sufficiently informative for the current purposes
of the conversation. Do not make your contribution more, or less informative than is
required.
(3) Relevance: Make sure that whatever you say is relevant to the conversation at hand.
(4) Manner: Avoid obscurity of expression
Avoid ambiguity
Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity)
Be orderly
Grice pointed out that these maxims are not always observed, but he made a
distinction between quietly violating a maxim and openly flouting a maxim. Violations
are quiet in the sense that it is not obvious at the time of the utterance that the speaker
has deliberately lied, supplied insufficient information, or been ambiguous, irrelevant or
hard to understand. In Grice’s analysis, these violations might hamper communication
but they do not lead to implicatures. What leads to implicatures is a situation where the
speaker flouts a maxim. That is, it is obvious to the hearer at the time of the utterance
that the speaker has deliberately and quite openly failed to observe one or more maxims.
According to Grice, the implicature is made possible by the fact that we normally
assume that speakers do not really abandon the cooperative principle although in
conversations they sometimes face a clash between maxims.
Grice viewed these rules not as arbitrary conventions, but as instances of more
general rules governing rational, cooperative behavior. For example, if a woman is
helping a man build a house, she will hand him a hammer rather than a tennis racket
(relevance), more than one nail when several are needed (quantity), straight nails rather
than bent ones (quality), and she will do all this quickly and efficiently (manner).
Generalizing from the explanation above, Grice provided a theoretical account
of what it is to conversationally implicate something that has been widely adopted,
sometimes with subtle variations.
3. Methodology
The methodology employed in this study is descriptive qualitative. A
qualitative study is an inquiry process of understanding a social or human problem,
based on building a complex, holistic picture, formed with words, reporting detailed
views of informants, and conducted in a natural setting. (Cresswell,1994). The objective
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