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Aujourd'hui, vous avez de la chance. Je vais vous présenter un
WorldwideReadershipResearchSymposium2005
Session2.8
NEUROMARKETING-HYPEORHOPE?
Arethererelevantconsequencesofthelatestresultsofneurosciences
formediaresearch?
RolfPfleiderer,TNSInfratestMediaResearch
ElevenleadingGermanneuro-scientistsintroducetheirremarkable"ManifestaboutthePresenceandtheFutureofBrain
Sciences"
1)
withthewords:
"Consideringtheenormousprogressofbrainsciencesinthelastyearstheimpressionmayarisethat
ourresearchisclosetosnatchitsfinalmysteriesfromthebrain."
Inthemediayoucanfindalotofreportswhichfeedthisimpression.Andmorespecificallyyoualsocanfindsomemarket
researcherspraisingthesuperiorityofneuro-economicapproachesandmethods
2)
overtraditionalones.
Thesubjectofthispaperistogiveanoverviewoftheactualstateofneuromarketingresearchandtodiscusssomepotential
consequencesformediaresearch.Thiscannotbeanexhaustiveorevencompleteoverviewbecausetherespectiveliteratureis
alreadyverycomprehensiveandreferringtoseveralscientificdisciplines(neurophysiology,biochemistry,psychology,business
economics,statistics,tonameonlysomeofthem).SoI'llgiveasubjectivepicturefromamediaresearcher'sperspectiveand
ratherformulatesomehypothesesthandrawscientific"conclusions".FirstofallI'llgivearoughimpressionofhowourbrain
workstakingasanexamplethesituation"youseeanadinamagazine".Afterthatthemostrelevantresearchtechniques(or
better-tools)inneurosciencesarebrieflypresented,followedbysomeexamplesandresultsofthiskindofresearchprojects.
FinallyI'lldealwithpotentialconsequencesofthefindingofneurosciencesformediaresearch.
Howcomestheadinyourmind?
Imagineyou"readorlookinto"amagazine.Andyouseeanad(e.g.for"JackDaniel's").RenéDescartes(1596-1650)thought
thatwhatyouseeisfocusedbyyoureyesandtherespectivepictureis"received"bytheretina,transformedtosignalswhichare
passedontothepinealgland.Therethephysicalsignal-a"resextensa"-ischangedintoa"rescogitans":theideaofwhatyour
eyescaught.Resextensaarephysical,divisible,destroyable-rescogitansarenot.Theyaretwocompletelyseparated
"substantiae"whichinteractinthepinealglandinamysteriousprocesscreatedbygod.
Left:DrawingofDescartes;right:Contemporaryad-work
Asfarasthat-Isuppose-thebroadmajorityofpeoplewillfollowDescarteseventoday,perhapswiththemodificationthat
"pinealgland"hastobesubstitutedby"ourbrain".Notonlyneuro-scientistshavecontributed(inthelast400years)toa
differentandfarmoredevelopedunderstandingwhat'sgoingoninourbrainlookingatamagazinepagewithanad.Wefor
exampledoknowthatthehumaneye-moreexactly:twodifferentkindsofspecializedcellsoftheretina-cantransform
electromagneticwavesintherangeofca.380to780nanometerintoneuronalactivity(tomakeaverycomplexprocessvery
simple)."Rods"and"cones"areonlythefirstofatleast4kindsofneuronsinvolvedonthewaybetweentheretinaandthe
visualcortexintheoccipitallobeofthebrainviathethalamus,theprimaryprocessorofvisualinformation.
Fromnowonthingsgetverycomplexandcomplicated.Youhavetoconsiderthatitisnotlikeonesnapshotwithacamera,how
you"see"theadismorelikeafilm,acontinuum.Butthisisalreadythe"finalversion"whichhasbeencarefullyprocessedand
"designed"byyourbrain. Inrealityyoureyesfixdifferentpointsandregionswithafrequencyof2to5fixationsandsaccades
87
Session2.8 WorldwideReadershipResearchSymposium2005
persecond,theeyesdeliverslightlydifferent"pictures"toyourbrainwhichhavetobe"interpreted"insomeway.Andsoonand
soforth.Evenmoreimportant:YourbrainisnotimpatientlywaitingforthevisualinformationabouttheJackDaniel'sadbutit
isworkingcontinuously.Aslongasyouholdyoureyesopenthereisalwaysrespectiveinformationprocessedtoyourvisual
cortexareas(andevenifyoucloseyoureyes-forexampleinasupermarketwhen"thinking"forasecondwhichbrandof
whiskeyyouwanttobuy-theactivityofthevisualcortexareasisnotzerobutthousandsofneurons"fire"andare"active"…
butthisisastorynottobetoldatthisplace).
The"visualcortex"
3)
canbeseparatedinthe"primaryvisualcortex"(V1)andthesocalled"visualassociationareas"(V2,V3,
V4,V5);alltheseareasagaincanbedifferentiatedintoapproximately30interconnectedvisualareas.Thefirstcorticalvisual
area,theonethatreceivesinformationdirectlyfromtheretina(relayedbythelateralgeniculatenucleusofthethalamus)
transmitsinformationtotwoprimarypathways,calledtheventralstreamandthedorsalstream.Theventralstreamconsistsof
severalvisualareas(V1,V2,V4,areasoftheinferiortemporalcortex).Eachofthemcontainsmillionsofneuronswhose
respectivefieldstogetherrepresenttheentirevisualfield.Theventralstreamisassociatedwithobjectrecognitionandform
representation.Itisalsoassociatedwiththestorageoflong-termmemoryandhasstrong(neural)connectionstothelimbic
system(whichcontrols/moderatesemotions).Inaddition:Alltheareasintheventralstreamare(moreorlessreciprocally)
connectedwitheachotheraswellaswithotherareasofthecortex(i.e.forexamplethesomato-sensoriccortex,theauditory
cortex,thesocalledlimbiccortexareas),andalsowithotherstructuresinthecenterofthebrain.Andtheventralstreamis
strongly(reciprocally)connectedtothedorsalstream.
Thedorsalstream(V1,V3,V5…)isinvolvedinspatialawarenessandguidanceofactions(e.g.reaching-perhapstothe
whiskeyintheshelf?).Wikipediaactuallydescribesthefunctionofthedorsalstreamby"ithastwodifferentfunctional
characteristics-itcontainsadetailedmapofthevisualfield,andisalsogoodatdetectingandanalyzingmovements".The
dorsalstreamisliketheventralstreamconnectedtotheothercortexregionsandtoothersubcorticalbrainstructures.
Alltheareasinthevisualcortex-aswellasalltheothercortexregions-areinfluencedbyfactorsasattention,actualactivities
intheworkingmemory,bythestimulussalienceetc.Andlastbutnotleasttheyareinfluencedbyprojectionsof"deeper"(older)
brainstructureswhichoftenarecalledvaluesystems(dopaminergicsystem,cholinergicsystem,noradrenergicsystem,etc.).
Regardingonlyakindof"snapshot"ofneuralactivitieswhilelookingintoamagazinewecanresumethatmillionsofneurons
areinvolvedintheprocess,numerousdifferentfunctionalareasinyourbrain,andthisdynamic"network"ischangingand
developinginfractionsofasecond.Intheverysameinstanttheothersensesalsoarereceivinginformationandchargeyour
brainwiththeirinput.Youhearthehammeringmusicfromyourboy'sroom,yousmellwhatinthekitchenispreparedforthe
hopefullyspeedydinner(youfeelhungry),andyoumaythinkofthenotyetfinishedcontributionforthenextreadership
symposium.Alltheseperceptionsandsensationsarepreparedbyrespectiveandalsoverycomplex"networking"ofmillionsand
millionsofneuronsinyourbrain,andtheyinteractwithyourvisualneuralactivities.
ButwhatI'vedescribedsofarisonlyasmallstepofthewholeprocesshowtheadcomesinyourmind.Sofarwecanonlysay
"theadisinyourbrain".Youstillarenotevenawareofit.We(actuallyphysiologists,psychologists,neuroscientistsetc.)know
preciselyhowexternalstimuli-visualstimuli,auditivestimuli,olfactorystimuli,gustatorystimuli,stimuliforthesenseof
touch,andalsostimuliwithregardtothermoception,nociception,equilibrioception,proprioception-arereceivedbyourbody
respectivelybyourbrain.Weknowalotregardingwhichareasofthebraindealwith/reactonthesestimuli.Researchmethods
andanalyticaltools-e.g.functionalMagneticResonanceImaging,PositronEmmissionTomography,EEG,MEG:seebelow-
havebeendevelopedandrecentlymuchimprovedtobetterunderstandthe"topography"ofourbrain'sactivities.Butthereis
morespeculationthanknowledgeabouttheexactmechanismshowthedifferentneuralactivitiesareintegratedtoconsistent
"scenes",howthese"scenes"becomeconscioustoour"self",howconceptsandideasarestored(shortterm/longterm)and
processed,abouttheneuro-physiologyoflearning,howexactlyanenormousshareofourbehavior(thinkofcycling,reading,
walking,andperhapsevendecidingforoneofseveralbrandsofwhiskeyintheshelf…)isautomatedandbythistakenaway
fromourconsciousness.
Iconcedethatwithregardtoallofthesequestionsthereareinteresting,sometimesfascinatingapproachesandcontributions
4)
.
Butthereisnogenerallyacceptedtheoryof"howthebrainworks",oraconceptofhowconsciousnesscomesintoourbrain(or
"self"?),oratleastasolutionofthe"bindingproblem"
("…theproblemofhowtheunityofconsciousperceptionisbrought
aboutbythedistributedactivitiesofthecentralnervoussystem"
,RevonsuoandNewman,1999).
5)
Intheir"manifest"
6)
theGermanneuroscientistsdescribetheactualstateofresearchasfollows:
"Basicallytheneuro-biological
analysisofthebrainsetsinatthreedifferentlevels.Thehighestexplainsthefunctionofmajorregionsofthebrain,e.g.special
functionsofvariousareasofthecortex,oftheamygdalaorofthebasalganglia.Themiddleleveldescribeswhatisgoingonin
formationsofhundredsorthousandsofcells.Andthedeepestlevelcomprisestheprocessesatthelevelofsinglecellsor
molecules.Sofarwehavemadegreatstridesonlywithrespecttothehighestlevelandtothedeepestlevelbutnotatthemiddle
level."
TheyexplainthattheprogressattheupperlevelismainlyduetonewmethodslikefMRIandPET.
"Ourknowledge
aboutwhat'shappeningatthemiddlelevel-…whichfinallyisthebaseoftheprocessesattheupperlevel-isterriblypoor…It
iscompletelyunknownwhat'sgoingonwhenhundredsofmillionsorevenbillionsofneuralcells"speak"witheachother…We
havenotevenanideaoftheruleshowthebrainworks,howitrepresentstheworldinawaythatactualperceptionfuseswith
formerexperience,howitexperiencesitsinneractivitiesasitsownactivityandhowitplansfutureactions.Evenworse:Itisnot
atallclearhowtoresearchintothiswiththehelpoftheactuallyavailablemethods".
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WorldwideReadershipResearchSymposium2005
Session2.8
Withrespecttothefuturepotentialofneurosciencesthe"brainresearchers"declareintheir"manifest":"
Inforeseeablefuture,
i.e.inthenext20to30years,neurosciencewillbeabletoexplaintheconnectionbetweenontheonehandneuro-electricand
neuro-chemicalprocessesandontheotherhandperceptive,cognitive,mentalandmotorperformancesinawaythatpredictions
oftheseconnections(inbothways)arefeasiblewithahighdegreeoflikelihood.Thismeansthatonewillconsistentlyaccept
mind,consciousness,feelings,actsofvolition,andfreedomofactionasnaturalprocessesbecausetheyarebasedonbiological
processes.
Neverthelesswe'llnotachieveacompleteexplanationofhowthehumanbrainworks,i.e.ageneraldecipheringatthecellular
orevenatthemolecularlevel.Particularlytherewillbeverylimitedsuccessincompletelydescribinganindividualbrainand
somakingpredictionsofthebehaviorofaparticularperson.Thisisduetothefactthatindividualbrainsorganizethemselves
onthebaseofgeneticdifferencesandnotreproducibleimprintingbyenvironmentaleffects-ingreatlyvaryingwaysfollowing
individualneedsandanindividualsystemofvalues.Thismakesitgenerallynotfeasibletoconcludefromrecordedbrain
activitiestotheresultingmentalprocessofaspecificindividual".
Sotheprovisionalanswertothequestion"howcomestheadinyourmind?"is:Wedon'tknow.Wedoknowalotabouthowit
comesinyourbrainandwiththehelpofnewneuroscientificmethodswehaveidentifiedalotofregionsandstructuresinthe
brainwhichareinvolvedinwhathappensinyourbrainwhenyouopenapageofamagazinewithanad.Andweknowthatwhat
happensinthissituationinyourbrainmaybequitedifferentofwhathappensinthebrainofanotherindividualinthesame
situation.Butweknownotmuchwhatreallyhappensinyourbrainortheotherindividual'sbrain.Theonlythingwearesure
aboutisthatwhathappensisvery,verycomplex-andthatbythewayalsoimpliesthatitisextremelynaïvetobelievethat
neuroscientists(albeitwiththehelpofmarketresearchers)canfindthe"buy-button"inthebrainwhichcouldbeaddressedby
advertisers.WolfSinger,oneofGermany'smostprominentbrainresearchershasputitintothefollowingwordsinaninterview
withtheSPIEGEL:
"Todaywecanmeasurebrainactivities-andnowhereacenteroffinalevaluationcouldbediscovered.
Obviouslythereisnosingleplacewhereallinformationgathers,whereconsistentrepresentationsoftheworldarebuiltfromthe
differentsignalsofallsenses,wheredecisionsaremade,wheretheselfsays"I".Insteadweareconfrontedwithanextremely
decentralizedorganizedsystem,whereatmanyplacessimultaneouslyvisual,auditiveandmotor-relatedresultsareproduced.
Andthebraincoordinatesallthisinamysteriouswaytoacoherentinterpretationofworld".
7)
Themostrelevantneuroscientificresearchtechniques
I'lllimitthefollowingshortdescriptionofneuroscientifictechniquestothosedirectlymeasuringbrainactivities.ButIwantat
leastmentionthattherearesomemoremethodsandtechniqueswhicharerelatedtoactivitiesofthenervoussystem
("neuro…"!),e.g.methodsofmeasuringgalvanicskinresponse,muscletension,bloodpressure,etc.
Themostimportantneuroscientifictechniquescanbegroupedintotwocategories:
a)
Methodsofmeasuringelectricalactivities
respectivelychangesofelectriccurrentsinthebrain(directlyrelatedto
neuralactivities):
- Electroencephalography(EEG)
- Magnetoencephalography(MEG)
b)
Methodsofmeasuringchangesofneuralmetabolismprocesses
:
- PositronEmmissionTomography(PET)
- FunctionalMagneticResonanceImaging(fMRI)
EEG
ThefirsthumanEEGwasalreadyrecordedin1924andpublishedin1929byHansBergerinJena.FortakinganEEG(normally
about20)electrodesareplacedontheskinofthetestperson.Inordertoreducethebiasbyimpedanceyoushouldpreparethe
scalpareabylightabrasionandapplicationofaconductivegel.
TheEEGshowsthesocalledbrainwavesandhowtheyvaryduringlabexperiments.Thetemporalresolutionishigh(inthearea
ofsub-milliseconds).Sothismethodisinterestingwithregardtotheanalysisofthesequenceofbrainactivities.Howeverithas
limitedanatomicalspecifityandtheresultscanonlyberelatedtothesurfaceofthebrain(spatialresolutionofabout3cm).
MEG
TheMEGisthemeasurementofthemagneticfieldsproducedbyelectricalactivityinthebrain.Itisverysensitive,withoutany
timelagandnotlimitedtotheelectricalactivitiesofthesurfaceofthebrain.Sothistechnologycanprovideanimageofthe
entirebrainactivityatacertainmoment(andofsequencesofmoments).Butthespatialresolutionisaproblembecauseof
interferencesbetweenthemeasuringmachineandtheobjectsofthemeasurement.
The"machine"isasystemofabout300superconductingspoolssituatedinakindofhelmetaroundthehead.Youneeda
magneticallyshieldedroomforthismachineandabout400lliquidheliumpermonth.Themachineisexpensive.Themachine
isabletomeasurethecombinedfieldsfromaregionofabout50.000activeneurons.CombinedwithfMRIandwithhelpof
sophisticatedcomputerprogramsyoucandrivethespatialresolutionofMEGtomillimeters.
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Session2.8 WorldwideReadershipResearchSymposium2005
Thestrengthofthistechniqueisitsabilitytoanalyzethetemporalstructureof(changesof)brainactivities.Anexamplegives
thequotefromabrand-choicestudyconductedbyBräutigametalin2001:
"
Choosingamongdifferentbrandsofcloselyrelatedproductsactivatedarobustsequenceofsignalswithinthefirstseconds
afterthepresentationofthechoiceimages.Thissequenceengagedfirstthevisualcortex(80-100ms),thenastheimageswere
analyzed,predominantlythelefttemporalregions(310-340ms).Atlongerlatency,characteristicneuralactivationwasfound
inmotorspeechareas(500-520ms)forimagesrequiringlowsaliencechoiceswithrespecttoprevious(brand)memory,andin
therightparietalcortexforhighsaliencechoices(850-920ms)."
8)
PET
PETisanuclearmedicinetechnologywhichcanprovideathreedimensionalimageormapoffunctionalprocessesinthebrain.
"PETscanningisinvasive,inthatradioactivematerialisinjectedintothesubject.Howeverthetotaldoseofradiationissmall,
usuallyaround7mSv.Thiscanbecomparedto…2-6mSvperannumforaircrewsand7,8mSvperannumbackground
exposureinCornwall"(!).
9)
Youneedacyclotron(inthesamebuildingasthescanner).Itisofferedonlybyafewhospitalsanduniversities."PETbrain
mappingisbasedontheassumptionthatareasofhighradioactivityareassociatedwithbrainactivity.Whatisactuallymeasured
indirectlyistheflowofbloodofdifferentpartsofthebrain,whichisgenerallybelievedtobecorrelated,andusuallymeasured
usingthetraceroxygen(
15
O)."
10)
Itsspatialresolutionisbrilliant(below1mm),thetemporalresolutionispoor(upto5seconds
youhavetocorrectitforthecomputeranalysis).
FMRI
FMRIisbyfarthemost"popular"neuroscientifictechnique.Itisbasedonthealreadylongknowncorrelationofhemodynamic
activityinthebrainandneuralactivityinthebrain:Activenervecellsconsumeoxygensuppliedbylocalcapillaries.
Approximately4to6secondsafteraburstofneuralactivity,ahemodynamicresponseoccursandthatregionofthebrainis
infusedwithoxygen-richblood.Becauseofthemagneticcharacteristicsofoxygenthemagneticresonancesignalofbloodis
slightlydifferentdependingonthelevelofoxygenation(
"
B
lood
O
xygenation
L
evel
D
ependantsignal=BOLD).AnMR
scannercanbeusedtodetecttheBOLDcontrast.
ForthosewhowanttogointodetailIrecommend"fMRIforDummies"(www.med.uwo.ca/neuroscience/gap/faculty.htm
JodyCulham).Ican'theredescribeindetailtheprocessofconductingafFMRIstudy.ButIwanttoemphasizetwopoints:
1) Inordertoproducethesewellknownpictureswheresomeregionsofthebrainare"litup"inyellowandredandothers
arenot
- youhavetoworkoutsuitablehypotheseswhichspecialregionsinthebrain("ROI"=regionsofinterest)willreactin
whichwaytoyourstimulus/task,
- youhavetorecruitrighthandedtestpersonsaccordingtoyourtestdesign(whomustn'thavemetalimplants,
pacemakers,aneurysmclips,interuterinedevices,somedentalwork,piercings,butmustwearearplugsinthescanner),
- youhavetotakenumerousscans,
- youhavetocomparethesescansbycomputerprogramsandhavetotakealotofdecisionsaboutthestatistical
methodstobeapplied,
- youhavetodecideontheanalysisprogram,
- andyouhavetocarefullymeasureouteachtestperson'sbrainandstandardizeitforthecumulativeanalysis:eachtest
personisdifferentandthesamecoordinatesinthescanmaydefinedifferentfunctionalareasindifferentbrains.
Beawareofwhatismeasuredandshownbythepictureswhichbuildyoursurveyreport:Differencesinthecerebral
bloodflowovertimeand/orcomparedtoasituationwithotherstimuli(becausethebraindoesn'thaveasituationwithno
stimulus!).
2) ThepreciserelationshipbetweenneuralsignalsandBOLDisnot(yet)known.Noonereallyunderstandshowneurons
-orasitisrelevanthere:Groups/clustersofsome10000neurons-triggerincreasedbloodflow.Asaconsequenceonecanat
leastnotbesuretodetectallrelevantbrainregions/spotsofneuralactivity-changesbymeasuringcerebralbloodflow
differences.
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WorldwideReadershipResearchSymposium2005
Session2.8
Inspiteofallthesepotentialbugsandproblems:fMRIisthemostpreferredtechniqueofneuroscientists.Thespatialresolution
ismoderate(canbeboosteddowntoca.1mmesp.whenfocusingasingleveryspecial"regionofinterest")andthetemporal
resolutionaswell(rememberthetimelagof4-6seconds).
Butitis"notinvasive",youdon'tneedtoinjectradioactivematerialinyourtestpersons.(Youmayjudgewhetheritis"biotic"
tobeaskedtoliestill,usuallyrestraintwithsoftpadsinordertoavoiddisturbingmovementsofthehead,andtobepushedinto
anarrowtubewhereyouhavetowearearmuffsagainsttheterriblenoiseofupto120dB).
Someexamplesofneuroeconomicresearchprojects
ThoughthenumberofmarketingrelatedneuroscientificstudiesseemstobelimitedI'msurethatonlyafractionoftheseprojects
hasbeenpublished.Soanyoverviewmaybebiasedinfavourof(more)academicprojects.PeterKenningandhisgroupatthe
UniversityofMünsterhavegivenanoverviewofrelevantresp.typicalneuroeconomicstudiesintherecentlypublished
"FOCUSJahrbuch2005"towhichIreferinthefollowingsection.Thisisnothingbutatranslationofthispublication:
91
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