HISTORIA LITERATUR BRYTYJSKIEJ ĆWICZENIA
1. BEOWULF
The poem begins with a brief genealogy of the Danes. Scyld Shefing was the first great king of the Danes, known for his ability to conquer enemies. Scyld becomes the great-grandfather of Hrothgar, the king of the Danes during the events of Beowulf. Hrothgar, like his ancestors before him, is a good king, and he wishes to celebrate his reign by building a grand hall called Heorot. Once the hall is finished, Hrothgar holds a large feast. The revelry attracts the attentions of the monster Grendel, who decides to attack during the night. In the morning, Hrothgar and his thanes discover the bloodshed and mourn the lost warriors. This begins Grendel's assault upon the Danes.
Twelve years pass. Eventually the news of Grendel's aggression on the Danes reaches the Geats, another tribe. A Geat thane, Beowulf, decides to help the Danes; he sails to the land of the Danes with his best warriors. Upon their arrival, Hrothgar's thane Wulfgar judges the Geats worthy enough to speak with Hrothgar. Hrothgar remembers when he helped Beowulf's father Ecgtheow settle a feud; thus, he welcomes Beowulf's help gladly.
Heorot is filled once again for a large feast in honor of Beowulf. During the feast, a thane named Unferth tries to get into a boasting match with Beowulf by accusing him of losing a swimming contest. Beowulf tells the story of his heroic victory in the contest, and the company celebrates his courage. During the height of the celebration, the Danish queen Wealhtheow comes forth, bearing the mead-cup. She presents it first to Hrothgar, then to the rest of the hall, and finally to Beowulf. As he receives the cup, Beowulf tells Wealhtheow that he will kill Grendel or be killed in Heorot. This simple declaration moves Wealhtheow and the Danes, and the revelry continues. Finally, everyone retires. Before he leaves, Hrothgar promises to give Beowulf everything if he can defeat Grendel. Beowulf says that he will leave God to judge the outcome. He and his thanes sleep in the hall as they wait for Grendel.
Eventually Grendel arrives at Heorot as usual, hungry for flesh. Beowulf watches carefully as Grendel eats one of his men. When Grendel reaches for Beowulf, Beowulf grabs Grendel's arm and doesn't let go. Grendel writhes about in pain as Beowulf grips him. He thrashes about, causing the hall to nearly collapse. Soon Grendel tears away, leaving his arm in Beowulf's grasp. He slinks back to his lair in the moors and dies.
The Danes, meanwhile, consider Beowulf as the greatest hero in Danish history. Hrothgar's minstrel sings songs of Beowulf and other great characters of the past, including Sigemund (who slew a dragon) and Heremod (who ruled his kingdom unwisely and was punished). In Heorot, Grendel's arm is nailed to the wall as a trophy. Hrothgar says that Beowulf will never lack for riches, and Beowulf graciously thanks him. The horses and men of the Geats are all richly adorned, in keeping with Hrothgar's wishes.
Another party is held to celebrate Beowulf's victory. Hrothgar's minstrel tells another story at the feast, the story of the Frisian slaughter. An ancient Danish king had a daughter named Hildeburh; he married her to a king of the Frisians. While Hnaef, Hildeburh's brother, visited his sister, the Frisians attacked the Danes, killing Hnaef and Hildeburh's son in the process. Hengest, the next leader of the Danes, desired vengeance, and in the spring, the Danes attacked the Frisians, killing their leader and taking Hildeburh back to Denmark.
After this story is told, Wealhtheow presents a necklace to Hrothgar while pleading with her brother-in-law Hrothulf to help her two young sons if they should ever need it. Next she presents many golden treasures to Beowulf, such as necklaces, cups, and rings. Soon the feast ends, and everyone sleeps peacefully.
In the night, Grendel's mother approaches the hall, wanting vengeance for her son. The warriors prepared for battle, leaving enough time for Grendel's mother to grab one of Hrothgar's counselors and run away. When Beowulf is summoned to the hall, he finds Hrothgar in mourning for his friend Aeschere. Hrothgar tells Beowulf where the creatures like Grendel live‹in a shadowy, fearful land within the moors.
Beowulf persuades Hrothgar to ride with him to the moors. When they reach the edge of the moors, Beowulf calls for his armor, takes a sword from Unferth, and dives into the lake. After a long time, Beowulf reaches the bottom of the lake, where Grendel's mother is waiting to attack. Beowulf swings his sword, but discovers that it cannot cut her, so he tosses it away. They then wrestle until Beowulf spies a large sword nearby. He grabs it by the hilt and swings‹killing Grendel's mother by slicing off her head. Still in a rage, Beowulf finds the dead Grendel in the lair and cuts off his head as a trophy.
As they wait, the Danes have given up all hope for Beowulf because he has been underwater for such a long time. They are shocked when Beowulf returns with Grendel's head and the hilt of the sword (which melted with the heat of Grendel's blood). They bear the hero and his booty back to Heorot, where another celebration takes place. Beowulf recounts his battle; Hrothgar praises him and gives him advice on being a king. A grand feast follows, and Beowulf is given more priceless treasures. The next morning, the Geats look forward to leaving Denmark. Before they leave, Beowulf promises aid for Hrothgar from the Danes. Hrothgar praises Beowulf and promises that their lands will have an alliance forever. As the Geats leave, Hrothgar finds himself wishing Beowulf would never leave.
The Geats return with much rejoicing to their homeland, where their king Hygelac and his queen Hygd greet them. In an aside, the narrator compares Hygd to the queen of the ancient Offa, who is not tamed until Offa comes to subjugate her. Beowulf tells his lord the events of his trip to Denmark. In the process, he tells another story that had previously been unmentioned. Hrothgar betrothed his daughter Freawaru to a prince of the Heathobards in order to settle an old feud. Beowulf speculates that someone will goad this Heathobard prince to take vengeance upon the Danes for all their past wrongs. Hygelac praises Beowulf for his bravery and gives him half the kingdom. They rule the kingdom together in peace and prosperity. Hygelac is killed in a battle soon after, so Beowulf becomes king of the Geats and rules the kingdom well.
In the fiftieth year of Beowulf's reign, a monster arises to terrorize the Geats. A treasure trove was left by an ancient civilization, which guarded it jealously until only one member of the race was left. After the last person's death, a fire-breathing dragon found the treasure and guarded it for three hundred years. One day, a slave stumbled upon the treasure and stole a cup as an offering to his lord. The dragon awakened to find something missing from his treasure, and began his rampage upon the Geats.
One day, Beowulf learns that this dragon has destroyed his own great hall. This attack sends him into deep thought. Soon he orders a shield to use for battle, but not without a heavy heart at what may happen to him. He recalls Hygelac's death in battle and his own narrow escape from this battle. He recalls a number of battles he has seen as he travels to the dragon's lair with eleven of his thanes. The servant who stole the cup leads them to the lair.
As they wait to attack the dragon, Beowulf recounts the Geat royal family's plight, in which Hygelac's oldest brothers killed each other and left their father to die of a broken heart. Beowulf says he served Hygelac well, and a sword (named Naegling) that he won while serving Hygelac will help him save the kingdom once again. Beowulf leads the charge to the dragon's cave. The shield protects him from the dragon's flames, but his men flee in fear, leaving only one man behind. This man is Wiglaf, Beowulf's kinsman through Ecgtheow. Wiglaf becomes angry, but swears that he will stay by Beowulf's side.
Just then the dragon rushes up to them. Beowulf and the dragon swing at each other three times, finally landing mortal blows upon each other the last time. The dragon is beheaded, but Beowulf is bitten and has a mortal poison from the dragon flowing through his body as a result. Wiglaf bathes his lord's body as Beowulf speaks on the treasure. He says that Wiglaf should inherit it as his kinsman; then he dies.
After his death, the cowards return, to be severely chastised by Wiglaf. He sends a messenger to tell the people of their king's death. The messenger envisions the joy of the Geats' enemies upon hearing of the death of Beowulf. He also says that no man shall ever have the treasure for which Beowulf fought. Wiglaf and Beowulf's thanes toss the dragon's body into the sea. They place the treasure inside a mound with Beowulf's body and mourn for "the ablest of all world-kings."
THE WANDERER
The first speaker in the poem introduces us to a "lone-dweller," whom he says is hoping for God's mercy and favor despite being condemned to travel alone over an ice-cold sea. He says the lines that follow as the speech of an "earth-stepper," who is probably this same "lone-dweller" we've just met.
The earth-stepper now steps in. He remembers the hardships he has faced, including the slaughter of his relatives. He says that no one remains alive to whom he dares speak his mind. This reflection that prompts him to share with us a "truth" – that it's good for a person to lock his thoughts within himself. A sad and weary mind never does anyone any good, so he counsels "glory-seekers" to bind their thoughts within, just as he has had to do ever since his lord was killed. Now, says the earth-stepper, he's looking for a new lord (as in, a big-time landowner who rules an area), someone to hang out with him and give him treasure.
The earth-stepper says that everyone who has been a friendless exile knows how miserable it is when sorrow is your only friend. Instead of receiving gold or fame, this person experiences only the path of exile and a frozen body. The friendless exile remembers better times – partying in the mead-hall, feasting among friends and with his lord. But now the good times are over.
When the friendless exile sleeps, says the earth-stepper, he dreams about being back in the hall, embracing and kissing his lord just as he did in the times when he received treasure from the his old boss. When he awakes, though, all he sees are waves and sea-birds bathing. When he remembers the good old days, his exile on the sea only seems sadder. Therefore, says the earth-stepper, he isn't sure why he doesn't despair when he thinks deeply about the life of men – how warriors abandoned their hall very suddenly, how this earth continues to decline.
A man cannot be wise until he is very old, says the earth-stepper. A wise man must be patient, emotionally stable, and careful about what he says. A warrior must not be weak, foolish, or cowardly. He must think carefully before boasting or making a promise. A wise man knows how awful it will be when the earth is abandoned, that it will be just like an abandoned building beaten down by wintry weather. In front of this abandoned building lie the bodies of warriors, picked at by birds and wolves or hidden in caves by friends. In this way God destroyed the world, until the work of giants, empty of the sounds of men, were worthless.When the wise man contemplates this building and thinks carefully about life, he speaks as follows: He laments the passing of life's pleasures and the people who once enjoyed them. He remarks how the time passes away into nothingness, as though it had never been.
Behind the high wall, adorned with serpent-carvings, lie the bodies of men, killed by ash-spears. Storms wrack the stone structure as snow covers the ground, sent by shadowy forces in the north in anger towards men. The earth is filled with hardship, and fate governs events within it. Gold, friends, kinsmen, and mankind are all fleeting. It's good for a person to keep his promises, and to keep his grief to himself until he knows how to make his situation better. Things will be well for the person who seeks favor and comfort from God, in whom all stability rests.
· exeter book
· anonymous author
· written 9th – 10th c
· speaker – need to leave his community, he’s sad; sorrows of loss. His community was killed, he was warrior, his companion was killed in the war, also his lord, only he survived, he’s no place to go, no friends; he may look for a new lord but he still remember old times, he travels because he doesn’t want to sit in the old place which reminds him happy times, everything brings him memories
· season – winter -> dark, cold, windy – he can’t be happy in such weather, it’s connected with death, the end of sth, loss, lack of hope
· in the end he remembered about God, it gives him release, peace of mind
· God is mentioned at the beginning & at the end of the poem
· a christian monk could add that God creates „a frame constriction”
· pogan poem
· ceasura, wyrd (he couldn’t change anything in his life or imagine future)
· community -> with lord & faithful warriors; safety, happy life, can’t live in isolation
· voyage – travelling (the time is passing by)
· God is source of hope, peace of mind
· alliteration
· kenning – methaphor in unusual way
· UBI SUNT – „what happened to them” – loss, sad experiences
DREAM OF THE ROOD
The Dream of the Rood begins with the narration of the speaker of a dream he had. In his dream he sees a tree covered with gold and surrounded by angles. While he is gazing at the tree it starts to bleed heavily from its right side. It, then, addresses the dreamer. The tree is the cross of the crucifixion, and it portrays the details of the story. Jesus is described as a mighty warrior and a hero. The cross itself has been dug out after the crucifixion and now it dwells with Jesus and has the power to heal those who pray to him. The cross requests the dreamer to tell other people of this vision. One who knows the story of the crucifixion will gain an after-life. After the dream the speaker dedicates his life to contemplation and spiritual devotion so after his death he could enter the heaven kingdom of Jesus.
· Christian poem
· suffering, meditation
· written about 9th c
· author anonymous
· 1st person narration, two speakers
· the dreamer – in the 1st and 3rd part, the Cross in the 2nd part
· 1st part – description the Cross
· 2nd part – Crosse’s speach
· dream vision/ convention – main character, fell asleep, dream has message
· Cross is covered with fold, jewellery – beautiful with angels, it begins to tell the story of the tree was cut down, the process of change to cross; tree – symbol of life
· dreamer – Christ is not affected that he’s hanging, the Cross is more affected, it’s bleeding, become more humane, than Cross is buried; sb found it -> symbol of external life, salvation
· dreamer wakes up – he understands faith brings conselation, hope, they feel needed, worth it
· Christ – brave hero, sucrifise for the others; he’s responsible of community
· poem in 2 ways – Christian and pogan
2. THE PEARL
· anonymous author – sstyle and content connected with court – can be cleric or filologian
· written – late XIV c
· 101 stanzas
· each stanze consist of 12 lines
· rhymes
· in each section – repetition of one word in the last and first line of stanza
· CONCATENATION -> repetition overlaping – two words from first line are repeated in the last line
· alliteration but not everywhere
· no ceasura
· a dream vision
· persona fell asleep and dreams; a guide (man or animal) – a protector of dream
· spring setting -> symbol of rebirth
· allegory – figurative narrative, extended metaphor
· PARABOL (przypowieść) -> story told to teach important things
· life & death, religious, domination & salvation; morality & immorality
· story of death & eternal life
· a PEARL – a thing with great value, not for everybody, it’s lost in garden, persona misses it, suffers, trying to find it, remind the happy time when the pearl was his; his not successful in looking for it, he turns into despair; his tired and fall asleep; he dreams about forest, meadow, stream and noticed his pearl on the opposite side of stream but there’s no way to get there. The Pearl is personified – it’s a girl wearing a white nobe -> she may symbolise sb important for a character, who died, sb innocent – maybe a child, maybe it’s a place where the child is buried?
· it’s a haeven, maybe he’s in mourning/ bereavement (żałoba)
· child appeared to give him consolation, that there’s a life after death in Christian religious
· he want to join the girl because she’s happy, but it’s impossible; she want to instruct him to be a good chrisitan to deserve to get to heaven
· the roles are reserved -> the child is wiser than father ang gives him a lesson
· at the end – father wants to join a child and jump into stream but he wakes up and go back on earth
· he received a conselation and lesson
· he will meet a girl after he dies
· a pearl in Latin „margarita” – a name for a girl
· a garden symbolise a paradise
· a light -> a symbol of innocence; presence of god’s grace
· the river -> border between an earth and heaven
THE CANTENBURY TALES ; THE GENERAL PROLOGUE (GEOFFREY CHAUCER)
"When April comes with his sweet, fragrant showers, which pierce the dry ground of March, and bathe every root of every plant in sweet liquid, then people desire to go on pilgrimages." Thus begins the famous opening to The Canterbury Tales. The narrator (a constructed version of Chaucer himself) is first discovered staying at the Tabard Inn in Southwark (in London), when a company of twenty-nine people descend on the inn, preparing to go on a pilgrimage to Canterbury. After talking to them, he agrees to join them on their pilgrimage.
Yet before the narrator goes any further in the tale, he describes the circumstances and the social rank of each pilgrim. He describes each one in turn, starting with the highest status individuals.
The Knight is described first, as befits a 'worthy man' of high status. The Knight has fought in the Crusades in numerous countries, and always been honored for his worthiness and courtesy. Everywhere he went, the narrator tells us, he had a 'sovereyn prys' (which could mean either an 'outstanding reputation', or a price on his head for the fighting he has done). The Knight is dressed in a 'fustian' tunic, made of coarse cloth, which is stained by the rust from his coat of chainmail.
The Knight brings with him his son, The Squire, a lover and a lusty bachelor, only twenty years old. The Squire cuts a rather effeminate figure, his clothes embroidered with red and white flowers, and he is constantly singing or playing the flute. He is the only pilgrim (other than, of course, Chaucer himself) who explicitly has literary ambitions: he 'koude songes make and wel endite' (line 95).
The Yeoman (a freeborn servant) also travels along with the Knight's entourage, and is clad in coat and hood of green. The Yeoman is excellent at caring for arrows, and travels armed with a huge amount of weaponry: arrows, a bracer (arm guard), a sword, a buckler, and a dagger as sharp as a spear. He wears an image of St. Christopher on his breast.
Having now introduced the Knight (the highest ranking pilgrim socially), the narrator now moves on to the clergy, beginning with The Prioress, called 'Madame Eglantine' (or, in modern parlance, Mrs. Sweetbriar). She could sweetly sing religious services, speaks fluent French and has excellent table manners. She is so charitable and piteous, that she would weep if she saw a mouse caught in a trap, and she has two small dogs with her. She wears a brooch with the inscription 'Amor vincit omnia' ('Love conquers all'). The Prioress brings with her her 'chapeleyne' (secretary), the Second Nun.
The Monk is next, an extremely fine and handsome man who loves to hunt, and who follows modern customs rather than old traditions. This is no bookish monk, studying in a cloister, but a man who keeps greyhounds to hunt the hare. The Monk is well-fed, fat, and his eyes are bright, gleaming like a furnace in his head.
The Friar who follows him is also wanton and merry, and he is a 'lymytour' by trade (a friar licensed to beg in certain districts). He is extremely well beloved of franklins (landowners) and worthy woman all over the town. He hears confession and gives a...
mar.lip