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MERCOURIOS GEORGIADIS

THE OBSIDIAN IN THE AEGEAN BEYOND MELOS:

AN OUTLOOK FROM YALI

Summary. Obsidian is an important material circulated throughout the

Aegean. Melian obsidian is found at many sites and researchers have

concentrated on Melos without acknowledging obsidian from other sources.

This article endeavours to highlight obsidian of non-Melian origin, such as that

from the Carpathians, central Anatolia, Antiparos and, particularly, Yali. It is

demonstrated that this latter source was a central one for certain islands, with

its obsidian found at a number of sites in the Dodecanese and beyond. It is also

emphasized that there were circulation modes of obsidian parallel to that of

Melos, as well as different procurement conditions. Therefore, by including

important regional sources such as Yali in the obsidian discourse, our

understanding of obsidian exchange and circulation is enriched.

INTRODUCTION

Flaked tools are very common in assemblages, but their study in Aegean prehistory has

only attracted serious attention in recent years. The most common materials for making these

tools are chert, which at many sites is available locally, quartz, radiolarite, rhyolite, hornstone,

chalcedony, jasper and obsidian (Carter and Ydo 1996, 155; Karimali 2005, 182, 187; Kozlowski

et al . 1996, 296–7; Matzanas 2000, 1–2; Moundrea-Agraﬁoti 1997, 170–1; 2004, 473; Perlès

1992, 128; Rapp 2002, 71; Robb and Farr 2005, 28–9). Exploitable obsidian sources are rare

across the world; in the Mediterranean they are evident only on islands, while in the Carpathians,

central and eastern Anatolia, Ethiopia and Eritrea they are found in inland mountainous areas

(Karimali 2005, 182; Renfrew and Aspinall 1990, 259–61; Robb and Farr 2005, 35).

In the Aegean there are three sources of obsidian: Melos and Antiparos in the Cyclades

and Yali in the Dodecanese (Georgiades 1956, 151; Moundrea-Agraﬁoti 2005, 51; Renfrew

1972, 442; Renfrew and Aspinall 1990, 259; Renfrew et al . 1965, 229–32; Shelford et al . 1982,

183, 190–1). Obsidian from Melos has dominated discussions in Aegean prehistory and the

intention here is to trace the real extent of its distribution and the ways in which it was circulated.

At the same time, obsidian recovered from other sources in the Aegean will be discussed,

highlighting its range and signiﬁcance. The most prominent of these is obsidian from Yali, which

will be treated in detail with respect to its use, distribution and procurement. In this way, it will

be possible to illustrate the importance of obsidian sources other than Melos and the extent of

their circulation in the Aegean.

OXFORD JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY 27(2) 101–117 2008

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THE OBSIDIAN IN THE AEGEAN BEYOND MELOS

THE OBSIDIAN FROM MELOS

The volcanic island of Melos is located in the western part of the Cyclades and includes

two outcrops of obsidian in the north-east at Sta Nychia and Demenegaki (Barber 1987, 113;

Carter and Kilikoglou 2007, 115–16; Moundrea-Agraﬁoti 2005, 51; Torrence 1982, 193). The

exploitation of Melian obsidian began in the Upper Palaeolithic (UP), as the ﬁnds from Franchthi

cave in the Argolid indicate, and expanded thereafter both in range and quantity, reaching a peak

in the Early Bronze Age (EBA) (Moundrea-Agraﬁoti 2005, 51; Robb and Farr 2005, 36; Shelford

et al . 1982, 182–3). The wide distribution of Melian obsidian has created a magniﬁed illusion

with regard to its role, importance and distribution, and causing sources on Antiparos and Yali to

be neglected because the quality of the obsidian was not good enough for tools (Mantzanas 2000,

2). Hence, all other sources and varieties have been overshadowed to such a degree that in

Aegean prehistory, reference to obsidian is almost automatically taken to mean Melian.

In the Aegean, sites can be divided into those where obsidian dominated the chipped

stone tools and those where other materials were prevalent. Throughout the Neolithic, obsidian

became progressively more popular and dominated the ﬂaked tools assemblages in southern

mainland Greece (Barber 1987, 117; Renfrew et al . 1965, 238). However, this older model is

only partly correct, since it seems that there was a further division between the eastern and

western parts of the Greek mainland. It appears that the Pindos range, as well as its extension to

the Peloponnese which runs in a roughly north–south direction, formed a formidable barrier

to the distribution of obsidian. The surveys conducted in Laconia, including Ayios Stephanos

(Carter and Ydo 1996, 141; Kardulias 1992, 427), southern Argolid, including Lerna (Kardulias

and Runnels 1995, 74–6; Runnels 1985, 357–8), and central Greece including Lithares in Boiotia

and Manika in Euboia (Hartenberger and Runnels 2001, 275), have conﬁrmed that obsidian

prevailed in eastern mainland Greece (Cosmopoulos 1991, 76; Moundrea-Agraﬁoti 1997, 170).

In contrast to this is Messenia, located in western Greece, where ﬂint predominated at all sites

during the Bronze Age (BA), except at Romanou, where obsidian blade production took place

during Late Helladic (LH) I or II (Blitzer 1992, 712; Matzanas 2001–2, 49–50, 54; Parkinson

1999, 76, 80).

Melian obsidian was dominant in the Cyclades, but the picture is not the same on Crete.

Although at Knossos obsidian was popular and has been found in large quantities since the Early

Neolithic (EN), the Western Mesara Survey suggests that in this area obsidian represents almost

2.5 per cent of the ﬂaked stones (Blitzer 2004, 510; Hope Simpson et al . 1995, 395), at Gavdos

3.9 per cent (Mantzanas 2000, 9 n. 100) and the site survey conducted by Nowicki (2002) across

Late Neolithic (LN) Crete has shown that chert predominates in southern Crete. Exceptions are

LN Phaistos and BA Kommos, as well as 13 out of 40 tholos tombs in Mesara that contained

obsidian blades (Blitzer 1995, 488–9; 2004, 512–13; Branigan 1970, 66). At the Vrokastro area

chert was mainly used in the FN period, but it changed in favour to obsidian in the BA (Hayden

2003, 42). Thus it seems that the northern part of the island was more open to the obsidian

exchange network, with limited penetration into the south where local chert resources were

exploited.

In northern Greece, i.e. Macedonia and Thrace, chert was more prevalent, with obsidian

penetration being limited in size and extent, reaching as far as Dispilio, Yannitsa and Sitagroi

during the Middle Neolithic (MN) and LN periods (Kilikoglou et al . 1996, 343). In the east

Aegean the obsidian distribution is more varied, with chert being predominant on LN and EBA

Limnos (Mantzanas 2000, 9 n. 100; Moundrea-Agraﬁoti 1997, 168), EBA Lesbos (Moundrea-

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MERCOURIOS GEORGIADIS

Agraﬁoti 1997, 176 n. 24), LN and EBA Chios (Bialor 1982, 699–700; Hood 1982, 711), BA

Troad (Renfrew et al . 1965, 238) and most of the Ionian coast. At Ulucak Höyük, for example,

obsidian was found in modest quantities in Neolithic and EBA phases (Çilingiro˘lu et al . 2004,

52; Greaves and Helwing 2003, 485). Nonetheless, obsidian pieces prevail at LN and EBA

Miletos and comprise 50 per cent of the ﬂaked stones from LN Aphrodisias, an inland south-

western Anatolian site (Greaves 2002, 44). Obsidian is the most common material for tools at LN

Samos (Felsch 1988, 134), LN Ikaria (Sampson 2006, 164–5) and parts of the LN Dodecanese

(Sampson 1987).

The processes of procurement, distribution and manufacture are important issues

closely related to the consumption of obsidian. Scholars accept that there was open access to

obsidian from both Sta Nychia and Demenegaki on Melos, at least from the UP until the

foundation of Phylakopi in Early Cycladic (EC) III. While some scholars believe that there was

some kind of control over the sources by Phylakopi from EC III, or even earlier, until the end of

the Late Bronze Age (LBA) (Mantzanas 2000, 4, 19), others favour a model of continuity for the

same manner of acquiring obsidian as in the Neolithic (Renfrew 1972, 442–3; Renfrew et al .

1965, 241–2; Torrence 1982, 197; 1984, 61–2; 1986, 170–1). This open access to material, at

least during the Neolithic and part of the EBA, was achieved either through special voyages or

as one function of a trip where other activities such as ﬁshing were performed, with a down-

the-line reciprocal exchange taking place (Kardulias 1992, 441; Perlès 1992, 145; Torrence

1982, 220; 1986, 103–5, 135–6, 216). However, the presence of one production centre in a

region, as in Messenia, or the presence of ready-made products on a site with limited local

production, as in the case of Laconia, strongly suggests a different mechanism of obsidian

exchange (Carter 1994, 134; 2005, 303–5; Carter and Ydo 1996, 163; Kardulias 1992, 437;

Torrence 1986, 137, 221). Carter (1999, 330; Broodbank 2000, 297–8) underlines the quantity of

obsidian assemblages at Phylakopi on Melos and at Poros-Katsambas on Crete, reinforcing the

idea of a different production and distribution mode.

OBSIDIAN IN THE AEGEAN FROM SOURCES OTHER THAN MELOS

Although in the past it was believed that no obsidian was imported from beyond

the Aegean (Renfrew 1972, 442), recent ﬁnds suggest otherwise (Fig. 1). Possibly, the most

astonishing was the presence of Carpathian obsidian at Mandalon in western Macedonia

(Kilikoglou et al . 1996, 349; Moundrea-Agraﬁoti 2005, 52–3). From the 11 analysed samples of

LN and EBA date, nine LN and one EBA had a Carpathian provenance and only a single one

from Melos of EBA date. The predominance of Carpathian obsidian at Mandalon is impressive,

especially when the distance from the source (more than 600 km) is considered. Mandalon is an

excellent example of a site that strongly suggests the presence of multiple exchange networks

and the range they may have covered. Moreover, it highlights the point that the proximity of a site

to a source of material is not necessarily a reason per se for importing the material from there.

Thus, social motives should be sought to explain a preference for a distant exchange network

rather than a closer one.

The most common exotic source for obsidian found at sites in the Aegean is central

Anatolia, more speciﬁcally Çiftlik. Obsidian from here has been found as far north as Sitagroi

in inland Thrace, most probably of EBA date, as well as at Nova Zagora in Bulgaria

(Kilikoglou et al . 1996, 344; Moundrea-Agraﬁoti 1997, 175; Renfrew and Aspinall 1990,

266; Shelford et al . 1982, 191). At Troy, Melian obsidian predominates, but Anatolian is

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THE OBSIDIAN IN THE AEGEAN BEYOND MELOS

Figure 1

Distribution of obsidian from the Carpathians (triangle), Anatolia (circle) and Antiparos (square) in the Aegean.

1 Mandalon (Macedonia); 2 Sitagroi (Thrace); 3 Mikro Vouni (Samothrace); 4 Troy; 5 Poliochni (Limnos); 6 Ulucak

Höyük (Izmir area); 7 Emporio (Chios); 8 Tigani (Samos); 9 Halasarna (Kos); 10 Yali; 11 Rhodes town (Rhodes);

12 Kalythies (Rhodes); 13 Platanos (Crete); 14 Knossos (Crete); 15 Poros-Katsambas (Crete); 16 Malia (Crete);

17 Apandima (Antiparos); 18 Krassades (Antiparos); 19 Saliagos.

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MERCOURIOS GEORGIADIS

represented in modest numbers from phase I until much later (Moundrea-Agraﬁoti 1997, 175–

6). At Ulucak Höyük in the Izmir area, the analyses conducted on the obsidian ﬁnds from this

site reveal that the material derives mainly from central Anatolia (Çilingiro˘lu et al . 2004, 52).

Although there are no chemical analyses, the transparency of a few tools from Mikro Vouni

on Samothrace, Poliochni on Limnos, Emporio on Chios and Tigani on Samos suggests an

Anatolian provenance (Moundrea-Agraﬁoti 1997, 176 n. 24; 2005, 53). The same applies for

the Dodecanese, where a few pieces, including cores, have been recovered at Kalythies and

Rhodes town on Rhodes (Sampson 1984, 69, 72; 1987, 46–53, 96), on Yali (Sampson 1988,

205) and most probably one core from the Halasarna region in southern Kos (Georgiadis

forthcoming). In Crete, Çiftlik obsidian comes from Knossos (Carter and Kilikoglou 2007,

128; Kilikoglou et al . 1996, 344; Renfrew and Aspinall 1990, 266; Shelford et al . 1982, 191),

from an Early Minoan (EM) II–Middle Minoan (MM) II tholos tomb at Platanos (Carter and

Kilikoglou 2007, 128, 130; Moundrea-Agraﬁoti 2005, 53) and Middle Bronze Age (MBA)

Malia, where the obsidian comes from the east Göllü Da˘ source (Carter and Kilikoglou 2007,

126–8). In the case of the central Anatolian obsidian, there is a wide distribution mainly

concentrated in the eastern Aegean from the LN until the MBA. So far, no obsidian from the

central Mediterranean has been recognized in the Aegean nor any Aegean obsidian in Italy and

the Adriatic.

The obsidian source on Antiparos is located at the heart of the Cyclades. The quality of

the obsidian is good, but it is found in nodules of less than 5 cm in length, making this material

inappropriate for producing blades (Cann et al . 1968, 105; Evely 1993, 119; Georgiades 1956,

160; Moundrea-Agraﬁoti 2005, 51; Shelford et al . 1982, 191). Owing to this fact, many scholars

disregard its existence and do not include it as a possible source of obsidian (Barber 1987, 113;

Cosmopoulos 1991, 76; Karimali 2005, 182; Robb and Farr 2005, 35). Nonetheless, obsidian

from Antiparos in the form of nodules and ﬂakes has been recovered from LN Saliagos, a small

islet probably connected to Antiparos at the time of its occupation (Cann et al . 1968, 106;

Renfrew 1972, 442). Moreover, a nodule has been found in a grave at Apandima and Krassades

cemeteries on Antiparos dating to the EC period (Renfrew et al . 1965, 239). Although the nodule

must have had certain signiﬁcance in order to be placed in the grave, there seems little practical

use for this material. Their small size and their limited distribution peculiar to Antiparos led

Renfrew and Aspinall (1990, 259) to consider this source as insigniﬁcant. However, recently

an Antiparos obsidian piece has been found at Poros-Katsambas (Dimopoulou 1997, 433–4;

Mantzanas 2000, 8) of Prepalatial date (EM I–MM I), raising questions about the extent of its

distribution and whether or not the material can be worked.

THE OBSIDIAN FROM YALI

Yali, only 6 km 2 , is the smallest island in the Aegean to possess an obsidian source; it is

located between Nisyros and Kos in the south-east Aegean. The main outcrops, situated in the

north-eastern part of the island, are placed within perlitic strata (Sampson 1984, 63; 1988, 10).

The obsidian from Yali is more transparent than that from Melos and Antiparos, but it is not pure.

It has white or pink spherical spots known as spherulites (chalcedony crystals), distributed ﬁve

or six per square centimetre, causing irregular fracture when worked, especially when the

‘pressure’ technique is employed (Georgiades 1956, 155; Evely 1993, 119; Katsarou et al . 2002,

111; Moundrea-Agraﬁoti 1990, 406; Renfrew et al . 1965, 232; Sampson 1984, 68). Obsidian

from Yali is mainly known for the stone vessels made from it in Minoan Crete from MM I–Late

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